IP 


* ; 

^•^3^^'^'i'^^V ^^"^i::^^^'.  ft^^S^    ^ 

'  -;t%  \^&^c^W:^  v^^.^^c?^^'"-"'"  "'^V^'^.IVIA 
,77» 


xg;: 

- 


C.  C.   N.   S.   SERIES. 


FORM  LESSONS. — To  prepare  for  and  accompany  the 
study  of  number.  W.  W.  SPEER,  Teacher  of 
Mathematics,  Cook  County  Normal  School.  Price, 
75  cents.  "An  excellent  book."  .FRANCIS  W. 
PARKER. 


ORDER  OF  EXERCISES  IN  ELOCUTION.  — Follows 
the  Delsarte  System  of  Expression.  Price,  $1.00. 
FRANK  STUART  PARKER,  Teacher  of  Elocution, 

C.  C.  N.  S. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ORDER  OF 
EXERCISES  IN  ELOCUTION.  — Price,  $2.25. 
Address  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER,  Englewood,  111, 


C.  C.  N.  S.  SERIES 


HOI  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY 


FRANCIS  W.  PAEKEE 


PKEPAKED  FOB  THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  CLASS  OF  THE 
COOK  COUNTY  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

FRANCIS  W.  PARKER, 

PRINCIPAL  COOK  COUNTY  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 
ENGLEWOOD,    ILL. 


v 


Copyright  1888. 

BY   FRANCIS   W.    PARKER. 


EDUCATION 


PRESS  OF 

EAGLE    PRINTING    CO. 
22-24    FOURTH     AVENUE. 

CHICAGO,    ILL. 


INDEX. 

GRADE.  PAGE. 

I.    INTRODUCTION. 

Motive       .        , I. 

Theory V. 

Method XIII. 

Difficulties XVII. 

II.    PREPARATION  FOR  TEACHERS           ....  13 

Study  of  a  River  Basin      ....  13 

Structure  of  Continents          ...  13 

North  America 26 

South  America 35 

Eurasia 42 

Africa 48 

Australia 51 

The  World  as  a  Whole     ....  52 

Distribution  of  Heat           ....  55 

Ocean  Currents 59 

Winds 59 

Distribution  of  Moisture          ...  62 

Distribution  of  Vegetation        .        .        .  63 

Distribution  of  Animal  Life          .        .  67 

Distribution  of  Races          ....  68 

Distribution  of  Minerals  and  Metals    .  70 

Political  Divisions 71 

Commerce  and  Manufactures         .        .  73 
III.    OUTLINE  OF  COURSE   OF  STUDY   OF  ELEMENTARY 
GEOGRAPHY: 

First  Grade 76 

Second  Grade 77 

Third  Grade 78 

Fourth  Grade 79 

Fifth  Grade 80 

Sixth  Grade 82 

544370 


Seventh  Grade 83 

Eighth  Grade           83 

IV.    SUGGESTIONS  AND  DIRECTIONS: 

One  Direction 85 

History 86 

Curiosity       .        .        .        .                .        .  87 

Maps 90 

Relief  Maps 94 

Map  Drawing           99 

The  Art  of  Questioning      ....  101 

Language 105 

Reading  and  Study 114 

Number  and  Arithmetic          .        .        .  116 

Seasons'1 119 

Field  Lessons 121 

The  Part  and  the  Whole     .        .        ,  123 

Concentration            130 

V.    NOTES  UPON  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY: 

First  Grade 134 

Second  Grade           138 

Third  Grade 141 

Fourth  Grade            143 

Molding  in  Sand 144 

Suggestions  for  Elementary  Lessons    .  145 

Lessons  upon  Occupations        .        .        .  152 

Lessons  upon  Hills          ....  153 

River  Basins 161 

Coast  Lines 179 

Fifth  Grade          ......  183 

Molding  Continents         ....  183 

North  America     ......  185 

South  America 218 

VI.    EURASIA .  224 

Europe  and  Asia 224 

Africa  264 


Australasia 273 

Australia 273 

The  Earth  as  a  Sphere       ....  277 
General  Review  and  Comparison  of  Con- 
tinents          281 

Mathematical  Geography  .        .        .  285 

VII.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  HEAT 301 

Effects  of  Heat  upon  the  Atmosphere      .  307 

The  Winds  and  Moisture        ...  307 

Uses  of  Winds 312 

Ocean  Currents 312 

Distribution  of  Heat  by  Ocean  Currents 

and  Winds 314 

Distribution  of  Moisture  .  .  .  315 
Regions  of  Greatest  Rainfall  ...  317 
Distribution  of  Soil  and  Vegetation  .  320 
Distribution  of  Vegetation  by  Zones  .  323 
Distribution  of  Vegetable  Products  In  Re- 
lation to  their  Uses  .  .  .  325 
Plants  used  for  Shelter  ....  327 
Distribution  of  Animals  .  .  .  330 
Distribution  of  Races  of  Men  .  .  .  334 
Distribution  of  Minerals  and  Metals  .  337 

VIII.    DISTRIBUTION  OP  NATIONS 338 

Subjects  of  Lessons — Forms  of  Govern- 
ment; Political  Divisions        .        .  339 

Civil  Government 343 

Descriptions  of  Political  Divisions       .  345 

Occupations  of  Men 351 

Cities 357 

Bibleography 359 

Spring  Studies,  by  E.  D.  Straight      .  376 

Herder's  Speech  on  Geography        .        .  381 

Method  of  Modeling  Relief  Maps        .  387 


PREFACE. 


IK  beginning  this  book  I  proposed  to  write  a  pamph- 
let of  one  hundred  pages,  more  or  less,  for  the  use  of  the 
teachers  of  the  C.  C.  N.  S.,  but  the  work  grew  to  its  pres- 
ent size,  and  I  am  obliged  to  allow  some  faults  in  type  and 
arrangement  to  remain.  The  book  has  been  written  in  the 
odds  and  ends  of  a  busy  schoolmaster's  time.  There  is,  no 
doubt,  much  in  it  for  friends  to  criticise  adversely  and 
much  that  needs  the  sharp  lance  of  others  not  so  friendly. 
/  dedicate  the  book  to  all  teachers  who  thoughtfully  and 
thoroughly  prepare  every  lesson. 

FRANCIS  W.  PARKER, 


INTRODUCTION. 


MOTIVE. — There  is  but  one  question  in  this  world : 
How  to  make  man  better;  and  but  one  answer:  Education. 
Education  presents  the  conditions  for  man's  complete 
development.  To  find  the  highest  law  of  human  life  is 
the  central  problem  in  the  philosophy  of  education;  that 
law  which  determines  the  highest  function  of  a  human 
being.  The  central  problem  in  the  art  of  education  is  to 
train  and  develop  that  function  in  each  and  every  human 
being;  and  as  an  essential  sequence,  the  develop- 
ment of  each  and  every  power  of  mind  and  soul. 
Man  was  made  for  man,  and  his  one  God-like  function  is 
to  take  knowledge  from  the  eternity  of  truth  and  put  it 
into  the  eternity  of  human  life.  There  is  a  perfect  recon- 
ciliation between  the  application  of  unlimited  altruism 
and  the  most  complete  education  of  the  being  who  holds 
and  fully  applies  it :  for  the  knowledge  of  the  needs  of 
man,  and  the  human  acts  which  supply  those  needs,  are  in 
turn  the  essential  means  of  the  all-sided  development  of 
each  human  being.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  needs  of  man  embraces  all  knowledge,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  that  knowledge  all  proper  human  activities. 

The  explanation  of  human  life,  then,  is  that  it  gives, 
and  just  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  that  which  it  gives 
it  grows. 

All  we  have  to  know  is  the  needs  of  mankind;  all  we 
have  to  do  is  to  supply  those  needs. 


ii  INTRODUCTION. 

True  education  concentrates  upon  the  development  of 
the  highest  motive. 

Upon  this  basis,  the  absolute  and  relative  value  of  any 
branch  of  knowledge,  the  fundamental  reasons  for  its 
teaching,  the  proportion  of  time  and  effort  given  to  it, 
must  be  determined  by  the  influence  of  such  knowledge 
upon  the  outworking  of  God's  design  of  the  human  being 
into  character. 

The  knowledge  of  life  comprehends  all  knowledge, 
and  therefore  the  study  of  life  comprehends  all  studies. 
Inorganic  or  inanimate  matter  is  the  material  basis  of  all 
animated  organisms,  and  the  purpose  of  the  study  of  all 
the  sciences  that  pertain  to  inorganic  matter  is  to  gain  a 
knowledge  of  the  preparation  for  life,  its  substantial  basis, 
and  the  explanation  of  the  laws  and  conditions  of  life. 
Life  is  in  itself  a  unit  of  evolution  from  the  lowest  germ 
of  the  plant  up  to  the  highest  development  of  human  con- 
sciousness. 

The  study  of  any  item  or  detail  of  life,  or  of  the  prepa- 
ration for  life,  becomes  of  vast  importance  when  we  appre- 
ciate its  relations  to  the  grand  totality  of  life.  There  are 
no  trifles  in  real  teaching;  the  child  studying  the  root, 
stem,  leaves,  flowers  and  fruit  of  a  plant  is  gaining  essen- 
tial elements  in  all  knowledge.  What  he  learns  is  organ- 
ically related  to  all  truth ;  through  the  life  of  a  simple 
plant  he  may  one  day  see  something  of  the  complete  unity 
of  life.  This  beautiful  truth  adds  great  dignity  to 
to  all  real  teaching  and  study. 

All  sciences,  though  isolated  in  name,  are  the  organic 
factors  of  one  great  whole, — each  is  intrinsically  related 
and  bound  to  all;  perfect  knowledge  of  one  means  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  all. 

No  science  can  be  learned  by  itself.  The  true  value 
of  one  science  is  found  in  its  relations-  to  the  universal 


INTRODUCTION.  iii 

whole.  Botany,  zoology  and  physiology  find  a  common 
term  in  biology;  biology  is  the  basis  and  explanation  of 
anthropology  and  ethnology.  These  sciences  grow  into 
philology,  psychology  and  philosophy — all  find  their  cul- 
mination in  history.  History  is  the  record  of  human  acts, 
and  in  this  record  are  to  be  found  the  laws  and  rules  of 
human  conduct;  that  is,  in  the  knowledge  of  ages  of 
human  actions,  the  principles  of  human  growth  and 
progress  are  discoverable.  Any  valuable  knowledge  of  his- 
tory is  impossible  unless  the  environment  that  educates  or 
degrades  is  first  understood. 

Geography  is  the  study  of  the  material  basis,  the  primary 
conditions  and  explanation  of  life  and  the  substantial  prep- 
aration for  it.  Structure  and  climate  are  the  two 
halves  of  one  great  whole  in  which  life  has  its  roots, 
environment  and  material  causation.  Again,  plant  and 
brute  life  is  one  half  of  another  whole,  of  which  man's 
history  forms  the  complementary  and  completing  half. 
The  structure,  climate  and  inferior  forms  of  life  explain 
the  life  and  growth  of  man  up  to  the  stage  in  which  his  en- 
hanced intellectual  and  moral  development  enables  him 
to  turn  upon  nature  and  make  it  his  instructor  and  serv- 
ant. Geography  gives  us  the  key  to  both  the  degrading 
and  elevating  influences  of  structural  and  climatical  en- 
vironment, and,  also,  the  limitations  of  this  powerful  agent. 

One  direct  ethical  outcome  of  this  knowledge  is  to  soft- 
en and  restrain  the  otherwise  harsh  judgments  dictated  by 
the  absolute  rules  of  human  conduct.  "  The  quality  of 
mercy"  is  a  just  sequence  of  a  comprehension  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which  make  men  what  they  are.  We  tolerate 
the  low,  base  and  degrading  in  human  beings,  who  are 
made  what  they  are  by  unfavorable  natural  environments 
without  the  elevating  influences  of  right  human  teaching. 
On  the  other  hand  the  same  knowledge  creates  a  great 


iv  INTRODUCTION. 

reverence  for  the  prolonged  struggles  to  overcome  the  im- 
mense obtstacles  which  have  been  placed  in  man's  path- 
way of  progress. 

Geography  explains  and  illuminates  history;  by  it,  laws 
tendencies  and  motives  are  understood ;  through  it  we  learn 
to  be  merciful  in  regard  to  human  weaknesses,  and  to  ap- 
preciate all  efforts  in  the  right  direction.  To  know  the 
world  is  to  love  the  world:  some  comprehension  of  the 
causes  and  effects  of  truth  and  error,  which  are  ever 
acting  and  reacting  upon  man,  the  perception  that  divine 
law  and  divine  love  moves  in  all  and  controls  all,  creates 
in  the  soul  a  truth  ideal  of  life  and  living.  To  know  and 
love  the  whole  world  is  to  become  subjectively  an  integral 
factor  in  all  human  life;  the  resulting  emotion  arouses  the 
only  true  patriotism,  the  patriotism  that  makes  the  world 
and  all  its  children  one's  own  land  and  nation.  Geogra- 
phy is  one  essential  means  of  bringing  the  individual  soul 
to  an  appreciation  of  the  universal  and  eternal. 

The  study  of  geography,  elementary  and  scientific,  cul- 
tivates, systematically,  the  faculty  of  imagination,  and  the 
products  of  this  faculty  arouse  and  develop  at  every 
step,  emotions  of  beauty  that  culminate  in  the  emotion  of 
grandeur.  The  mentally  pictured  hill  is  "a  thing  of 
beauty,1'  which,  in  time,  towers  up  into  the  grand  image 
of  the  lofty  mountain.  The  lake  is  the  inception  of  a 
picture  of  "old  ocean's  solitary  waste."  Gradually,  under 
skillful  teaching,  hills,  mountains  and  plains,  oceans  and 
continents  are  united  in  one  sublime  image  of  the  round 
world.  Life-bearing  and  life-giving  it  stands  out  before 
the  exalted  imagination.  No  one  can  study  real  geography 
without  a  deeper  reverence  and  higher  adoration  of  Him 
whose  thought  is  expressed  by  the  universe. 

The  greater  includes  the  less,  the  highest  law  and  the 
noblest  motive  co-ordinates,  arranges  and  adapts   all   the 


INTRODUCTION.  v 

subordinate  laws,  expedient  motives,  and  inferior  uses 
which  lie  between  the  inception  and  the  end.  "Seek  first 
the  Kingdom  of  God  and  His  righteousness  and  all 
things  will  be  added  unto  you." 

Thus  the  so-called  practical  uses  of  geography,  know- 
ledge of  commerce,  trade  and  the  like,  fall  into  their  pro- 
per places  and  highest  uses,  just  in  that  degrea,  in  which 
the  one  motive  of  man's  broadest  development  is  kept  in 
view,  as  the  single  aim  of  education. 

To  the  teacher  who  stands  facing  even  a  glimmer  of 
glory  which  the  grandest  law  of  human  life  and  the 
noblest  motive  of  human  action  reflects,  comes  the  divine 
inspiration  that  leads  her  to  turn  eager  faces  of  the 
children  to  the  blessed  light  of  truth. 

THEORY.  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  its  inhabitants.  This  good  old-fashioned  defini- 
tion is  thoroughly  sound  and  true:  it  covers  the  whole 
ground.  "And  its  inhabitants,"  includes  anthropology, 
ethnology  and  history,  sciences  by  themselves  (if  history 
may  be  called  a  science ) ;  therefore  these  sciences  cannot 
be  included  in  a  scientific  definition  of  geography,  as  a 
simple  science,  or  a  science  in  itself — not  including  other 
sciences. 

A  definition  of  geography  pure  and  simple  is  ua  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth's  surface."  -If  we  include  in  the  defini- 
tion the  forces  which  act  on  and  under  the  earth's  surface 
—we  enter  the  realm  of  physics,  chemistry,  geology  and 
mineralogy.  The  discussion,  then,  of  the  theory  of 
teaching  geography,  should  be  concentrated  upon  the  de- 
scription of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  primary  purpose  of  teaching  geography  is  to  de- 
velope  in  pupils  minds  a  concept  corresponding  to  the 
earth's  surface.  This  states  subjectively  that  which  a  de- 


vi  INTRODUCTION. 

scriptioii  of  the  earth's  surface  presents  objectively :  the 
two  statements  are  counterparts. 

The  psychological  basis  of  a  description  is  a  mental 
picture  or  image.  No  one  can  describe  the  earth's  sur- 
face, or  any  part  of  it  without  having  a  concept  which 
corresponds  to  the  surface  described.  These  facts  are 
very  simple,  their  importance  lies  in  the  solemn  truth  that 
very  much  so-called  geographical  teaching  consists  of 
descriptions  of  the  surfaces  of  maps  which  have  (in 
pupils  minds)  no  relation  whatever  to  the  reality. 

Of  what  does  the  surface  of  the  earth  consist,  or  in 
other  words  what  form  or  forms  are  to  be  described  in 
teaching  geography? 

If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere  or  spheroid,  that  is 
if  its  surface  were  perfectly  smooth,  a  description  of  the 
earth's  surface  would  be  extremely  simple,  but  the  remem- 
brance of  localities  would  be  extremly  difficult  indeed,  well 
nigh  impossible.  Places  could  be  located,  only  as  they  are 
upon  the  broad  ocean,  by  latitude  and  longitude.  The 
smooth  surface  would  present  no  character,  in  it  there 
would  be  no  distinctive  features  to  form  anything  like  a 
clear  mental  picture;  there  would  be  nothing  salient  upon 
which  the  mind  could  fix. 

A  chaotic  irregularity  of  surface  would  present  the 
same  difficulties  of  localization ;  for  instance  in  the  Bad 
Lands  of  the  West,  the  broken  surface  present ;.  great 
difficulties  to  travelers  who  try  to  thread  the  mazes  of 
that  chaotic  formation. 

The  first  beautiful  truth  that  comes  to  the  student  of 
geography  is  that  the  surface  of  the  whole  earth  is  ar- 
ranged in  slopes,  as  an  organism,  not  of  life,  but  for  life. 
The  earth's  surface  is  broken  into  long  and  wide  inclined 
surfaces.  These  great  slopes,  meeting  at  their  lower  edges 
form  the  vast  depressions,  in  which  are  held  the  oceans  of 


INTRODUCTION.    .  vii 

the  globe.  The  same  slopes  meeting  at  their  upper  edges 
form  the  great  upraised  masses  of  land  called  the  conti- 
nents. Each  continent  consists  of  two  slopes  divided  by 
an  axis.  The  two  slopes  which  form  the  continent  are 
sub-divided  in  the  Americas  by  secondary  axes.  Accord- 
ing to  a  law  of  the  mind,  the  first  mental  view  of  a  conti- 
nent, the  first  clear  generalization  must  be  of  these  broad 
all-embracing  slopes.  By  the  simplest  and  easiest  act  of 
the  mind  this  triangular  pyramidal  solid  is  cognized. 
There  is  no  confusion  of  details  to  obstruct  the  mental 
vision.  The  analysis  of  any  primary  slope  reveals  its  ex- 
treme complexity  ;  broken  into  immense  river  basins  by 
meeting  slopes;  the  basins  of  the  tributaries  are  formed 
in  turn,  by  other  slopes,  so  we  can  follow  the  complications 
of  meeting  slopes  down  to  the  basins  of  tiny  brooks  and  still 
smaller  inclinations  whose  meeting  lines  are  not  covered 
by  running  water.  All  these  meeting  slopes  present  the 
features  we  may  call  character  in  surface.  Any  two  joined 
inclinations  of  surface,  either  at  upper  or  lower  edges,  have 
a  distinctive  character,  differentiated  from  all  other  surface 
features.  It  has  an  individual  appearance,  an  appearance 
that  rises  in  the  consciousness  when  the  name  of  a  locality 
recalls  it. 

This  character  of  surface  is  the  essential,  specific  and 
indispensable  basis  of  the  remembrance  of  places  and 
events ;  it  makes  possible  the  greatest  economy  of  mental  ac- 
tion. By  it  every  event  of  history,  past  or  present,  ancient 
or  modern,  is  instantly  localized. 

The  association  of  an  event  (a  march  of  armies,  anew 
railroad,  an  impending  revolution)  with  a  distinct  image 
of  surface  features  fixes  it  in  the  memory  forever.  Noth- 
ing "  schwebt  in  der  Luft "  the  study  of  history  becomes 
a  living  reality.  Fixing  events  in  space  is  the  essential 


viii  INTRODUCTION. 

means  of  fixing  them  in  time  and  thus  organizing  a  knowl- 
edge of  history. 

A  clear  image  of  any  part  of  the  world  intensifies  inter- 
est in  all  that  happens  there.  The  eye  strikes,  in  the 
headlines  of  a  newspaper  article,  the  name  of  some  place 
in  which  we  have  been,  or  the  geography  of  which  we 
have  carefully  studied,  and  we  generally  read  the  article 
with  interest,  barren  though  it  may  be  in  itself,  because 
the  pictures  it  arouses  fill  us  with  pleasing  recollections 
and  emotions.  The  concept  of  the  broad  outlines  of  a  con- 
tinent, with  its  joined  slopes  meeting  the  oceans  at  their 
lower  edges,  is  the  basis  of  all  growing  knowledge  of  the 
land  surface. 

Each  modification  of  the  outlined  whole  river  basin, 
or  plateau,  as  it  is  studied,  falls  into  its  place  with  the 
whole  concept,  becomes  related  to  it  and  is  explained  by  it. 
Gross  errors  in  descriptions  may  thus  be  changed  to  truth 
in  the  same  way. 

A  few  years  ago  the  English  people,  who  only  study  the 
countries  they  conquer,  believed  that  the  Hindu  Kush 
pushed  its  mighty  wall  westward  so  as  to  form  an  almost 
impenetrable  obstruction  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
coveted  Khyber  Pass.  A  man  on  horseback  rode  easi- 
ly across  the  supposed  mountain  wall,  and  dissipated  that 
geographical  fancy.  The  student  who  has  a  mental  pic- 
ture of  the  whole  can  easily  modify  it  in  accordance 
with  the  newly  discovered  fact.  The  most  practical  re- 
sult of  the  study  of  geography  is  the  clear  concept  of  the 
outline — vertical  and  horizontal — of  the  whole  continent. 
The  continents  are  the  abodes  of  men,  the  vast  oceans 
furnish  the  life  blood  of  the  firm  land;  the  immense  body 
of  atmosphere  that  surrounds  and  incloses  both  water  and 
land  is  the  breath  of  the  world,  the  means  of  interchange 
of  moisture,  or  the  life  bloc  1  of  the  continents.  But  the 


INTRODUCTION.  ix 

firm  land,  the  ever  moving  waters,  and  their  vast  envelope 
would  ever  remain  in  lifeless  stillness,  in  eternal  death, 
were  it  not  for  the  infinite  energy  imparted  by  the  sun. 
Under  the  mighty  influence  of  heat  the  waters  of  the 
oceans  move  in  vast  currents,  rivers  in  the  ocean ;  the  at- 
mosphere is  filled  with  moisture  hy  the  same  inexhaustible 
power;  immense  volumes  of  air  sweep  regularly  from 
tropic  to  pole,  bearing  its  precious  freight  of  vapor  to  pour 
in  life-giving  rain  upon  the  long  slopes,  which  bear  it 
through  soil  and  in  surface  floods  back  to  the  ocean 
again— but  not  until  it  has  done  its  marvelous  work  in 
covering  the  land  when  it  falls  with  vegetable  life.  The 
distribution  of  heat  depends  upon  the  inclination  of  the 
axis  and  the  rotation  and  revolution  of  the  earth,  but  the 
use  of  the  heat  to  the  land  in  furnishing  the  conditions 
for  the  life  of  man,  depends  fundamentally  upon  the  nature 
and  arrangement  of  the  inclined  surfaces;  here  we  get  a 
glimpse  of  what  is  meant  by  organism  for  life. 

The  uses  of  slopes  in  the  economy  of  world  life  may 
be  summed  up: 

1.  The  character  of  joined  slopes  is  the  basis  for  the 
remembrance  of  all  that  has  taken  place  on  the  land. 

2.  The  inclined  surfaces  distribute  the  soil;  physical 
forces  crack  off,  break,  abrade  and  grind  up  the  solid  rock ; 
the  sloping  land  distributes  under  the  law  of  gravitation 
the  ground  up  masses  of  soil  over  its  surface.     The  upper 
parts  of  slopes  are  the  store-houses  of  soil — material  for 
all  the  surface  below. 

3.  The  amount  of  rainfall  depends  largely  upon  the 
height  and  arrangement  of  slopes. 

4.  The  distribution  of  heat  is  modified  by  height. 

5.  Drainage  depends  entirely  upon  the  arrangement 
of  land  surfaces  in   slopes.     Water  percolating  through 


x  INTRODUCTION. 

soil  down  inclined  surfaces  gives  rise  to  vegetation,  and 
upon  vegetable  life  animal  life  depends. 

6.  The  upraised  masses  of  land  determine  the  coast 
lines. 

A  knowledge  of  structure  (pure  geography)  is  the 
indispensable  foundation  of  all  geographical  knowledge; 
without  this  knowledge  the  science  of  geography  is  im- 
possible. 

Tlte  purpose  of  learning  structural  geography,  it  may 
be  repeated,  is  the  acquisition  of  a  concept  or  mental  picture 
which  corresponds  to  the  surface  structure  of  the  earth  in 
general  outlines  and  prominent  features.  Proceeding  de- 
ductively, from  the  highest  generalization  downward,  a 
knowledge  of  structural  geography  consists  of: 

1.  Concept  of  the  whole  earth  as  a  sphere. 

2.  Positions  of  the  continents  on  the  globe  and  their 
relations  in  position  to  the  oceans. 

3.  Position  of  the  oceans  and  their  relations  to  the 
continents  and  islands. 

4.  GENERAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS. 

a.  Great  slopes. 

b.  Continental  axis. 

c.  Land   masses. 

d.  Secondary  axis. 

e.  Great  rivers  basins. 

f.  River  systems. 

g.  Coast  lines. 

5.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  HEAT. 

a.  Movements  of  the   earth. 

b.  Inclination  of  axis. 

c.  Zones. 

d'  Distribution  of  heat,  modified  by  height. 


INTRODUCTION.  xi 

6.  MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Latitude. 

2.  Longitude. 

3.  Time. 

7.  OCEAN  CURRENTS. 

a.  Cause. 

b.  Effects  upon  Atmosphere. 

c.  Upon  Distribution  of  heat. 

8.  ATMOSPHERE. 

a.  Movements. 

b.  Causes. 

c.  Regular  winds. 

d.  Distribution  of  moisture. 

e.  Condensation. 

f.  Rainfall. 

g.  Effect    of    winds  upon    distribution  of 

heat. 
9.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SOIL. 

10.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  VEGETATION. 

11.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS. 

12.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  RACES  OF  MEN. 

A  concept  of  the  earth  with  all  these  factors  organ- 
ically arranged  and  related  is  the  basis  of  political  geogra- 
phy. The  prevailing  mode  of  teaching  geography  makes 
this  department  of  the  subject,  the  central  and  neafly  the 
sole  aim  of  the  school  work.  What  does  a  pupil  study 
when  he  divides  up  the  continents  into  political  divisions, 
without  a  concept  of  the  structural  basis  ?  The  answer 
is  not  far  to  seek;  he  studies  a  map  without  the  slightest 
relation  to  the  continents  themselves. 

With  the  concepts,  above  outlined,  political  geography 
is  the  division  of  the  (to  him)  real  earth  into  its  artifi- 
cial regions  by  natural  boundaries.  The  work  under  these 


xii  INTRODUCTION. 

conditions  becomes  plain,  simple  and  even  beautiful.  A 
map  of  the  world,  before  him  on  the  blackboard,  is 
full  of  meaning,  and  glowing  with  life. 

The  crayon  as  it  shows  the  boundary  of  a  political  di- 
vision, shows,  also,  the  relation  of  that  division,  structur- 
ally, to  the  whole  world.  He  can  describe  the  structure 
of  the  divisions,  he  knows  its  soil,  climate,  vegetation,  ani- 
mals, races  of  men,  and  is  fully  ready  to  study  the  struc- 
ture particularly,  to  know  more  of  its  vegetable  products, 
animal  life,  races,  and  to  begin  the  study  of  its  history. 
This  is  true  of  all  political  divisions,  what  he  thus  learns, 
every  new  detail  enters  into  an  organic  body  of  knowledge; 
there  is  no  isolation,  no  need  of  cramming  ;  the  memory 
grows  as  the  mind  grows.  That  which  he  learns  cannot 
be  forgotten. 

He  enters  upon  the  study  of  each  division  with  re- 
newed emotions  of  pleasure. 

To  illustrate,  a  structural  map  of  Asia  is  before  the 
pupils;  the  subject  of  study  is  India.  With  the  basis 
above  outlined  already  in  their  minds,  the  pupil  can  readily 
see, 

1.  India  is  a  part  of  Eurasia. 

2.  It  is  a  part  of  the  short  slope  of  Eurasia. 

3.  It  is  one  of  the  six  great  peninsulas  on  the  short 
slope. 

4.  The  horizontal  form  of  the  peninsula  is  triangular. 

5.  It  is  enclosed  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  the   Plateau  of 
Iran,  the  Himalaya  mountains  and  the  mountains   that 
form  the  upper  part  of  left  slope  of  the  Brahmaputra. 

Structurally  it  is  divided  into  two  distinct  regions; 
the  Plateau  of  Deccan  and  the  plain  formed  by  the 
basins  of  the  Indus,  Ganges  and  Brahmaputta.  This 
briefly  indicates  only  a  small  part  of  that  which  pupils 
will  know  of  one  political  division.  A  few  weeks,  well 


INTRODUCTION.  xiii 

spent  in  studying  political  geography,  after  the  founda- 
tion is  laid,  will  give  pupils  an  excellent  general  knowl- 
edge of  all  political  divisions. 

GEOGRAPHY  is  THE  OPEN  DOOR  TO  ALL  THE  SCIENCES. — 
The  day  is  slowly  coming  when  all  the  elementary  sciences 
with  history  and  literature  will  be  essential  factors  in 
teaching  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  common 
school  course.  Wise  and  thoughtful  teachers  will,  after 
due  deliberation,  drop  some  of  the  isolated  spelling,  tech- 
nical grammar,  and  figure  reckoning  to  make  room  for 
the  direct  study  of  life  and  the  preparation  for  life.  It 
will  be  gradually  discovered  that  reading,  spelling,  gram- 
mar, numbers,  drawing  can  be  best  taught  as  immediate 
aids  to  the  study  of  the  thoughts  of  God  in  nature. 

The  science  of  geography  is  the  real  inception,  the 
true  beginning  of  the  study  of  all  the  natural  sciences. 
The  knowledge  of  structure  leads  directly  to  the  study  of 
the  history  of  the  construction  of  the  earth,  geology : 
mineralogy,  and  its  kindred  sciences  are  involved  in  geol- 
ogy. Trained  observation  of  the  effects  of  force  in  any 
direction,  of  erosion,  moving  air  and  water,  or  the  vitaliz- 
ing energies  of  heat  makes  the  study  of  physics  a  neces- 
sity. The  more  subtile  changes  in  organic  and  inorganic 
matter  open  the  wonders  of  chemistry,  the  percolation  of 
water  through  the  soil,  giving  life,  as  it  goes,  to  plants, 
carries  the  learner  directly  to  the  study  of  botany.  It  is 
but  a  step  from  the  study  of  plants  to  the  study  of  ani- 
mals, and  to  the  highest  animal,  man.  Thus  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  material  basis  of  life  is  not  only  the  element- 
ary study  of  all  life,  but  it  unites  all  the  natural  sciences 
— makes  them  one  grand  unit. 

THE  METHOD. — The  activities  of  the  human  being 
may  be  described.  1.  The  unconscious  activities  ;  phys- 
ical activities  not  under  direct  control  of  the  will.  2. 


xiv  INTRODUCTION. 

The  sub-conscious  activities,  the  hrain  activities  that  pre- 
pare ideas  by  a  process  of  mentation  for  consciousness.  3. 
Conscious  activities.  4.  Automatic  activities ;  those  activi- 
ties which  after  passing  repeatedly  through  states  of  con- 
sciousness— are  released  by  repetitions  from  direct  volition 
education  presents  conditions  that  arouse  and  direct  all 
these  activities  to  the  end,  that  the  human  being  may  be 
developed  into  the  greatest  possible  use  to  his  fellow  men. 

Teaching  has  to  do  with  the  conscious  activities ;  it  may 
be  defined  as  the  presentation  of  those  conditions  which 
arouse,  sustain,  intensify  and  concentrate  conscious  activi- 
ties which  directly  induce  growth  and  development. 

The  definition  of  teaching  includes  the  definition  of 
method.  The  method  of  teaching  a  subject  or  branch  of 
knowledge  consists: 

1.  In  the  arrangement  cf  the  details  or  particulars  of 
the  branch  in  that  order  and  manner  best  adapted  to  the 
development  of  the  mind;  it  follows  necessarily  that  the 
order  and  arrangement  best  adapted  to  the  mind's  action 
and  growth  is  also  the  best  for  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge.    This  arrangement  of  details  is  called  a  course  of 
study. 

2.  The  presentation  of  the  details  in  time,  and  stage  of 
growth,  so  as  to  use  the  conscious  activities  in  the  most 
economical  way;  or,  in  other  words,  the  adaptations  of  the 
subjects  and  objects  of  thought  to  conscious  activities  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  concentrate  all  the  powers  of  the  be- 
ing upon  them. 

The  human  being  acquires  knowledge  and  power  by  the 
action  of  immutable  laws;  no  matter  what  external  con- 
ditions may  be  presented  to  the  teacher,  the  mind  grows 
and  acquires  knowledge  in  its  own  unchangeable  way,  fol- 
lowing undeviatingly  its  own  divine  laws.  The  presenta- 
tion of  conditions  not  adapted  to  the  laws  of  the  mind,  in 


INTRODUCTION.  xv 

its  stage  of  growth,  obstructs  mental  action  and  tvastes 
aicryies.  The  mind  may  grow,  however,  in  spite  of  ob- 
structions, but  the  growth  will  be  natural,  according  to 
natural  laws. 

In  order  to  understand  a  method  a  teacher  must  know 
the  laws  of  mental  development  and  the  means  (subjects 
and  objects  of  thought)  of  the  development;  under  this 
knowledge  the  method  (adaptation  of  means  to  develop- 
ment) may  be  studied. 

In  teaching  any  arbitrary  adherence  to  an  order  of 
time,  regardless  of  the  order  of  growth,  is  fatal  to  devel- 
opment. Any  teacher  who  pretends  to  have  a  perfect 
method  of  teaching  any  subject  is  a  quack.  Perfection 
in  method  is  a  pure  ideal,  far  beyond  the  reach  of  present 
knowledge.  The  course  of  study  here  presented  is  di- 
vided into  two  distinct  parts,  namely,  the  elementary  and 
the  scientific.  The  purpose  of  the  elementary  part  of  the 
course  is  the  collection  by  observation,  investigation,  read- 
ing, hearing  language,  and  study  of  the  psychic  material 
indispensable  to  the  inbuilding  of  an  organic  body  of  truth 
in  the  scientific  course.  The  elementary  course  is  sug- 
gested for  the  first  four  grades.  The  process  of  thought 
in  these  grades  is  mainly  inductive.  The  mental 
powers  to  be  constantly  exercised  are  those  of  synthesis 
and  analysis — the  later  used  at  all  times  to  enhance  the 
strength  of  the  former.  Color,  form  and  number  are  the 
essential  factors  of  synthetic  power. 

Observation,  hearing,  language  and  reading  are  the 
three  mental  processes  conditioning  the  presence  of  ob- 
jects and  symbols. 

Curiosity  and  fancy  are  the  innate  tendencies  to  be 
used  by  skillful  teachers,  in  making  fleeting  impulses 
steady  and  constant. 

Lastly,  to  intensify,  enhance,  concentrate  and  compact 


xvi  INTRODUCTION. 

all  the  conscious  activities,  are  the  various  modes  of  ex- 
pression: making,  modeling,  painting,  drawing,  oral  and 
written  language.  The  agents  of  teaching  just  named 
are  common  to  all  teaching.  The  choice  of  subjects  and 
objects  of  thought  makes  the  method  of  teaching  geogra- 
phy distinct  from  the  teaching  of  all  other  branches.  The 
main  purpose  of  scientific  geography  is  to  build  by  the  fac- 
ulty of  imagination  the  mental  pictures  of  the  continents 
and  then  to  synthetize  them  into  an  image  of  the  round 
world.  The  principal  work,  then,  in  the  primary  grades, 
is  to  collect  sense-products  needed  for  work  of  the  gram- 
mar grades.  Field  lessons,  observations  and  investigations, 
that  develop  these  ideas,  should  form  the  essential  part  of 
the  course.  This  work  has  been  outlined  in  the  course  of 
study  and  in  the  "notes."  The  architect  who  designs  one 
part  of  an  edifice  must  know  its  relations  to  the  whole ;  so 
the  teachers  in  the  lower  grades  should  know  the  purpose 
and  end  of  every  subject  and  object  of  thought. 

A  science  is  one  organic  whole  of  truth,  at  each  step 
each  inference  and  generalization  involve  all  preceding 
knowledge;  each  science,  in  turn,  is  only  a  part  of  one 
great  science,  the  science  of  life  and  living.  Scientific 
geography  illustrates  this  great  truth  in  a  beautiful  way. 
The  study  of  one  continent  requires  all  the  most  careful 
teaching  the  lower  grades  can  furnish;  one  continent 
is  the  measure  of  another,  and  so  on;  the  last  generaliza- 
tion in  the  study  of  civilization  demands  for  its  thorough 
exposition  every  fact,  inference  and  generalization  that 
precedes  it.  To  the  teacher  who  watches  with  great  eager- 
ness and  insight  the  growth  of  her  pupils  in  geography 
never  need  to  hesitate  in  regard  to  the  new  conditions 
that  should  be  immediately  presented. 

It  may  be  argued  against  the  arrangement  of  subjects 
presented  in  the  course  of  study  that  there  is  not  enough 


INTROCUCTION.  xvii 

of  political  geography  in  the  six  grades  from  the  lowest 
up ;  that  pupils  who  leave  school  in  these  grades  will  not 
have  as  much  knowledge  for  practical  use  as  they  would 
if  political  geography  were  the  principal  aim  of  the  work. 
Several  answers  may  be  made  to  this  apparently  import- 
ant objection.  The  study  of  history  which  should  run 
parallel  with  the  geography  will  supply  pupils  with  all  the 
information  upon  political  geography  that  they  are  capa- 
ble of  understanding. 

DIFFICULTIES. — Children  have  very  clear  mental  pic- 
tures of  the  houses  in  which  they  live  and  of  the  scenery 
that  surrounds  them.  These  objects  they  can  easily  describe 
from  their  mental  images.  It  is  easy  to  lead  them  to  imagine 
scenes  and  landscapes  that  lie  beyond  their  sense-grasp  by 
the  relation  of  stories.  The  novelist  understands  this 
power  to  picture  scenery,  he  places  his  readers  in  mount- 
ains, valleys  and  plains  at  will;  landscapes  are  made  clear 
and  often  vivid. 

The  modern  historian,  like  Curtius,  takes  his  readers 
into  Greece,  and  they  travel  with  him  over  the  hills, 
mountains,  and  valleys  of  that  wonderful  penisula. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  of  geography  is  precisely  the 
same  in  kind ;  the  inference  in  theory  at  least,  seems  a  safe 
one,  that  what  the  novelist  and  historian  can  do,  can  also 
be  done  by  the  skillful  teacher,  that  the  great,  simple  out- 
lines of  continental  structure  can  be  made  as  clear  to  pu- 
pils— as  a  mountain  ridge  in  Italy,  Greece  or  Palestine. 

This,  seemingly  simple,  plain  and  practicable  theory 
is  met  and  opposed  by  the  facts  of  long  experience;  the 
application  of  the  theory  has  not  often  met  with  the  de- 
sired results. 

Careful  examinations,  prove  that  very  few  pupils  after 
years  of  study,  have  acquired  the  elementary  and  substan- 
cial  basis  for  the  study  of  history,  the  power  to  think  the 


xviii  INTRODUCTION. 

world  as  a  whole,  differentiated  by  the  simple  analysis,  into 
upraised  forms,  and  inclined  surfaces. 

Arguing  from  such  and  similar  tests,  many  a  teacher 
might  conclude  that  the  theory  is  wrong,  that  it  is  not 
adapted  to  the  mental  powers  of  children. 

Failure  in  application  of  a  theory  does  not  always 
prove  that  the  theory  is  false;  there  have  been  countless 
failures  in  the  application  of  the  Golden  Rule,  or  in  the 
principles  of  temperance,  yet  no  one  dares  to  deny  the 
truth  of  the  theories.  The  question  is,  does  the  difficulty 
lie  in  a  false  theory  or  is  it  to  be  found  in  the  unskillful  ap- 
plication of  a  true  theory  ?  The  inclination  is  a  very  strong 
one  to  believe  that  the  difficulty  is  in  unscientific  teaching 
and  not  in  the  mental  powers  of  children. 

A  great  number  of  careful  and  prolonged  examina- 
tions of  candidates  for  teacher's  positions,  coming  as  grad- 
uates from  high  schools  and  colleges,  show  conclusively 
that  anything  like  a  fundamental  knowledge  of  geogra- 
phy, after  long  years  of  study,  is  the  exception  and  not 
the  rule. 

Teachers  cannot  teach  that  which  they  do  not  know, 
Jacotot  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  If  teachers 
know  little  else  but  mental  pictures  of  maps  and  an  iso- 
lated mass  of  conglomerated  facts  they  cannot  teach  (/(jn</- 
raphy.  The  habit  of  thinking  of  the  map  and  the  map 
alone  is  an  almost  insurmountable  obstruction  in  the  way 
of  a  teacher's  ever  learning  to  teach  real  geogra- 
phy. A  teacher  who  has  always  taught  figures  and  fan- 
cies them  numbers,  rarely  learns  what  a  number  really  is. 
The  main  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  application  of  the 
science  of  teaching  is  the  ignorance,  on  the  part  of  teach- 
ers, of  the  subjects  they  pretend  to  teach.  Habit  and  tra- 
dition stands  in  the  way  of  their  ever  learning  these 
subjects.  It  costs  very  little  to  deny  that  a  plan  or  method 


INTRODUCTION.  xix 

is  right;  it  costs  long  years  of  patient,  persevering  toil  to 
grapple  anew  with  a  subject  which  has  been  thoroughly 
misunderstood.  The  cheap  way  is  the  common  way,  and 
children  must  suffer  the  terrible  consequences. 

The  application  of  the  true  principles  of  geographical 
teaching  will  cost  every  teacher  who  has  studied  maps 
instead  of  the  earth's  surface  courageous  and  devoted 
enough  to  try  it,  long  years  of  the  closest  study,  but  the 
children  who  are  properly  taught  from  the  beginning  will 
one  day  teach  geography  as  Agassiz  taught  natural  history. 

The  plan  here  presented  is  given  to  teachers  with  a 
profound  faith  that  they  and  their  successors  will  find 
something  far  better  for  the  children. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRflPflY. 


RIVRR    BASINS. 

The  following  diagrams,  statements  and  problems 
are  given  to  aid  teachers  in  forming  a  concept  of  all 
the  general  conditions  of  a  river  basin.  By  general 
conditions  is  meant  the  prominent  features,  i.  e., 
those  which  enter  into  all  river  basins. 

1  .—Two  Conditions  of  a  River  Basin. 

I. — Two  inclined  planes,  surfaces  or  slopes,  meet- 
ing at  their  lower  edges. 

NOTE. — These  diagrams  present  the  geometrical 
or  conventional  conditions,  and  not  the  real  form  of  a 
river  basin. 


Put  a  pin  into  water  parting  a,  one  at  b,  and  one 
at  c;  stretch  a  line  between  the  pins  and  we  would 
have  a  line  like  a  b  and  b  c. 

13 


14 ^  '    HOW   TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

m*  II.— a "  b'  and  b  c  represent  any  two  transverse 
lines  in  the  two  planes,  surfaces  or  slopes  of  a  river 
basin. 

III. — a  is  any  point  in  the  altitude  of  the  left  slope 
(left  of  river  looking  down  the  river),  i.  e.,  in  the  water 
parting. 

IV. — c  is  any  point  in  the  altitude  of  the  right 
slope 

V. — b  is  any  point  in  the  line  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  the  two  slopes  at  their  lower  edges. 

NOTE. — The  river  ahvays  flows  over  this  line. 

VI. — a  b  c  represents  any  line  drawn  trans- 
versely across  river  basin  from  water  parting  to  water 
parting. 


2. 

I. — b  represents  conventionally  any  cross  section 
of  a  river  basin  cut  from  the  surface  down  to  the  plane 
of  the  mouth  of  river,  or  plane  of  body  of  water  into 
which  the  river  flows. 

II. — df  is  any  line  in  the  plane  of  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  or  the  surface  of 
the  body  of  water  into  which  the  river  flows. 


RIVER    BASINS.  15 

PROBLEMS . — 1.  What  is  a  d  ? 

2.  What  is  c/? 

3.  What  is  6  e? 

4.  What  is  a  b  e  d? 

5.  Whatis  &  c/e? 

Why  does  the  river  always  flow  over  the  line  of 
which  b  is  a  point  ? 

When  this  line  changes,  the  course  of  the  river 
must  change..  Why? 

3.— Lateral  Section  of   River  Basin. 


I.  —  g  h  represents  the  line  of  which  b  in  A  and 
B  represents  a  point. 

NOTE.  —  g  h  represents  the  line  of  the  meeting  of 
the  two  slopes  which  form  the  river  basin  at  their 
lower  edges.  The  water  or  river  always  flows  over  this 
line.  Land  may  rise  from,  and  above  the  river  bed, 
then  there  would  be  two  slopes  within  the  two  slopes 
that  form  the  river  basin  (an  island),  and  consequently 
there  would  be  two  lines  which  bound  the  two  slopes 
that  rise  above  the  river  bed. 

D. 

g 

r 


II.  —  i  h,  in  C,  is  a  line  in  plane  of  the  surface  of 
the  body  of  water  into  which  the  river  flows.     If  the 


1 6  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

river  flows  into  another  river,  i  h  is  in  the  plane  of 
surface  exactly  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

III. — g  i  is  a  line  representing  the  altitude  of  the 
slope  g  h. 

g  is  a  point  in  the  altitude  of  the  source  or  general 
slope  of  the  river  basin. 

h  represents  a  point  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  or 
lowest  point  of  the  source  or  general  slope. 

IV.     PROBLEMS.— 1.    When  does   6  e,  in  B,   coincide  with 
y»,inC?  X 

2.  At  what  point  is  b,  in  B,  in  the  same  plane  with  d  f,  in 
B,  and  i  h,  in  C  ? 

3.  What  does  the  length  of  i  h,  in  C,  determine  ?    Is  the 
river  always  as  long  as  i  h,  in  C  ? 

4.  Why?    Why  not? 

5.  What  does  the  grade  of  the  general  inclination  of  g  h, 
in  C  determine  ? 

6.  It  g   h  were  at  a  right  angle  with  g  i,  what  would  be 
the  result  ? 


4. 

I. — In  E,  g  h  is  divided  into  three  grades  of  slope 
or  inclination,  to-wit:  (1)  g  k,  greatest  inclination; 
(<3)  k  I,  less  inclination ;  (3)  I  h,  the  least  inclination. 


RIVER   BASINS.  17 

NOTE. — Most  rivers,  especially  large  river  beds, 
have  these  three  grades  of  slope ;  the  grades  are  by  no 
means  regular  (having  the  same  lengths) ;  in  some 
river  beds  the  order  of  grades  is  reversed. 

PROBLEMS. — What  effect  would  each  of  these  three  grades 
have  upon  a  river? 

If  g  h,  at  any  portion  of  its  inclination  were  nearly  par- 
allel with  g  i,  what  would  be  the  result? 

5.— Natural  Lines  or  Lines  Which  Bound 
(Inclose)  Natural  Divisions. 

I. — There  are  three  kinds  of  natural  lines  formed 
by  meeting  surfaces.  These  lines  divide  and  bound 
natural  divisions  of  continental  surfaces. 

1.  Lines  formed  by  the  meeting  of  land  surfaces 
or  slopes  at  their  upper  edges. 


II. — b  is  a  point  in  the  line  of  meeting  of  two 
slopes  at  their  upper  edges.  The  line  of  which  b  in 
F  represents  a  point,  divides  two  slopes. 

NOTE. — In  the  West  such  a  line  is  called  a 
"divide." 

2.  Lines  formed  by  slopes  meeting  at  their  lower 
edges,  as  b  in  A.  All  naturally  moving  surface  water 


1 8  HOW   TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

flows  over  these  lines.    There  are  many  such  lines  upon 
land  surfaces  over  which  no  water  flows.     Why? 

3.     Lines  formed  by  the  meeting  of  land  surfaces 
or  slopes  with  water  surfaces. 


I. — C  represents  a  point  in  the  line  of  a  land  sur- 
face meeting  a  water  surface  (coast  line). 

NOTE. — There  are  other  lines  not  natural,  but  in 
some  degree  arbitrary,  which  bound  land  surfaces ;  the 
most  important  in  the  study  of  structure  is  the  line  which 
divides  highlands  and  lowlands  at  the  height  above 
ocean  level  of  1,000  feet  (Guyot).  This  line  is  not 
formed  by  meeting  slopes,  but  it  divides  a  slope  laterally. 
There  are  also  snow  lines,  timber  lines,  etc. 

PROBLEMS. — a  and  c  in  B,  and  g  in  (7,  are  points  in  a  line. 
What  line?  h  in  C  is  a  point  in  the  same  line  as  a  c  in  B,  and  g 
in  C.  What  line? 

Bound  a  river  basin?  A  boundary  should  entirely  inclose 
the  space  bounded.  Bound  the  left  slope  of  a  river  basin. 

6.— Change  of  Natural  Lines. 

Natural  lines  (three  kinds)  are  constantly  changing. 
It  may  be  said  that  they  change  every  day,  if  not  every 
hour.  Slopes  grow  less  or  greater  in  breadth.  Eivers 
change  their  channels  in  some  part  of  their  course. 


RIVER    BASINS.  19 

The  study  of  the  causes  and  effects  of  these  constant, 
everlasting  changes  is  exceedingly  interesting  and  in- 
structive. 

What  causes  natural  lines  to  change?  Name  all 
the  causes.  What  are  the  results  of  these  changes? 
Name  them  all. 


g  h  represents  the  line  of  meeting  of  the  two 
slopes  that  form  the  river  basin,  and  it  also  represents 
by  its  inclination  the  source  or  general  slope  of  the 
river  basin.  This  slope  g  h  meets  at  j  an  opposing 
slope, .;'  k.  What  is  the  result  ?  What  in  the  river 
would  the  opposing  slope  k  I  form  ?  How  could  the 
opposing  slope  be  naturally  removed  ?  How  the  op- 
posing slope  be  changed  to  the  inclination  of  the  gen- 
eral without  removal  ? 

NOTE. — Such  formations  as  indicated  in  H  (op- 
posing slopes)  are  common  to  many  rivers ;  probably 
all  rivers  in  the  beginning  of  their  growth  had  many 
such  opposing  slopes.  The  St.  Lawrence  basin  is  the 
most  remarkable  example  of  this  kind. 

NOTE. — Upon  changes  in  natural  lines  or  natural 
boundaries  of  natural  divisions  of  land  surface,  these 
lines  change  (1)  vertically  down  and  up — down  by 


20  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

erosion  and  up  by  the  filling  up  with  abraded  rock, 
and  by  volcanic  action ;  (2)  from  right  to  left  and  the 
reverse  by  erosion  and  filling  up  with  abraded  rock  or 
silt. 

It  is  said  by  geologists  that  the  Kocky  Mountains 
were  once  a  mile  higher  than  they  are  now.  What 
forces  broke  off  and  ground  up  the  rock?  Where  is 
the  ground-up  rock  now? 

How  does  a  river  make  its  bed  and  cut  its  chan- 
nel ?  What  is  a  canon  ?  How  is  it  formed  ? 

The  line  g  Ti,  in  C,  representing  the  line  formed 
by  the  meeting  of  two  slopes,  is  generally  a  very  irreg- 
ular line ;  it  is  never  a  straight  line.  What  would  be 
the  result  if  it  were  a  straight  line  ? 


I. 


Horizontal  view,   movement   from  right   to   left, 
windings  or  meandering. 


Vertical  view,  movement  up  and  down. 


RIVER   BASINS.  21 

7.— The    Frame  Work   and    Covering  of 
River  Basins. 

The  frame  work  of  a  river  basin  (there  may  be 
exceptions)  is  a  solid  mass  of  rock.  This  mass  of  rock 
is  nearly,  and  in  some  instances  wholly,  covered  with 
soil  or  ground-up  rock  (gravel,  sand,  clay,  marl,  loam, 
vegetable  mold,  etc.).  The  soil  is  of  varying  depths, 
from  a  few  inches  to  hundreds  of  feet. 

What  would  be  the  result  if  there  were  no  soil  or 
ground-up  rock  on  the  hard  rock  skeleton  ?  By  what 
means  was  the  soil  spread  out  over  the  rocky  skeleton  ? 

What  and  where  can  you  see  the  same  forces  act- 
ing now  ? 

Show  how  a  river  cuts  soil  and  rock  down  ? 
.     Show  how  the  bed  of  a  river  can  be  raised  ? 

How  does  a  river  move  from  right  to  left  and  the 
reverse  ? 

What  are  the  results  ? 

What  effect  has  the  revolution  of  the  earth  upon 
rivers  which  flow  south  or  north  ? 

8.— Storage    or   Natural     Reservoirs    of 
Water  in  River  Basins. 

I. — There  are  four  means  of  water  storage  in  a 
river  basin. 

1.  Surface  water  like  springs,  ponds,  lakes, 
tributaries,  the  river  itself. 


22  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

2.  Ice  and  snow  upon  great  heights. 

3.  Underground    reservoirs    in   clefts   of    rocks, 
caves  and  channels  under  the  surface. 

4.  The  soil  through  which  water  soaks  or  per- 
colates. 

Which  kind  of  reservoir  generally  furnishes  the 
greatest  supply  of  water  to  the  river?  Which  gen- 
erally holds  the  most  water  at  any  one  time,  the  sur- 
face waters  or  the  soil  ? 

Explain  the  causes  of  a  freshet  or  a  flood. 

What  has  vegetation  to  do  with  holding  moisture  ? 

How  are  rivers  artificially  supplied  with  water, 
generally  for  manufacturing  purposes  ? 

What  is  a  canal,  and  how  is  it  made  ? 

When  is  the  valley  or  lower  part  of  a  river  basin 
irrigated  ? 

How  is  land  irrigated  by  ditches  or  canals  ? 

What  is  an  artesian  well,  and  how  is  it  made  ? 

Upon  what  two  general  conditions  does  the  amount 
of  water  in  a  river  depend  ? 

In  some  very  large  river  basins  comparatively  small 
areas  furnish  most  of  the  water  for  the  river.  How  do 
you  account  for  this  fact  ?  See  Nile  basin. 

How  are  swamps,  morasses  formed  ? 

9.— Uses  of  Rivers. 

How  large  an  area  of  land  does  a  river  drain  ? 


RIVER   BASINS.  23 

Exception.  Several  correct  answers  can  be  given  to 
this  question. 

Give  all  the  uses  of  a  river  basin  ?  What  is  the 
most  important  use  ? 

What  are  the  uses  of  a  river?  Find  as  many  as 
you  can. 

What  are  the  two  principal  uses  of  a  river  ? 

What  would  be  the  conditions  of  a  straight  river? 
There  are  no  rivers  of  this  kind. 

What  would  be  the  effects  of  a  straight  river  ? 

Why  does  a  river  wind?  What  are  the  uses  of 
the  windings? 

What  part  of  a  river  is  generally  navigable,  if  it 
be  navigable  at  all  ? 

What  are  the  surface  conditions  of  rivers  used  for 
manufacturing  ? 

1  O.— Classification  of  River  Basins. 

From  general  conditions  peculiar  to  all  river 
basins,  we  take  up  the  size  and  particular  features  be- 
longing to  individual  river  basins. 

I. — Areas  in  square  miles. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

1.  Amazon 2,681,000 

2.  Obe 1,360,000 

3.  La  Plata 1,250,000 

4.  Mississippi 1,237,000 


24  HOW   TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

SQUAKE  MILES. 

5.  Nile 1,167,000 

6.  Amoor 1,063,000 

7.  Yenisei 999,000 

8.  Lena 775,000 

9.  HoangHo 714,000 

10.     Volga 637,820 

II. — Lengths  of  rivers. 


MILES. 


1.  Mississippi 4,396 

2.  Nile 3,895 

3.  Yenisei 3,688 

4.  Amazon 3,596 

5.  Missouri 3,096 

6.  Niger 2,990 

7.  Hoang  Ho 2,812 

8.  Lena 2,766 

9.  Amoor 2,673 

10.  La  Plata 2,500 

III. — Large  rivers  that  have  their  sources  in 
primary  highlands  and  flow  at  nearly  right  angles  with 
primary  axis — Amazon,  Indus,  etc. 

IV.  Large  rivers  which  flow  nearly  parallel  to 
primary  axis ;  the  upper  part  of  one  slope  is  formed  by 
primary  highlands — Mississippi,  La  Plata. 

V. — Large  rivers  whose  right  and  left  slopes  are 
plains — Yenisei,  etc. 


RIVER  BASINS.  25 

VI. — Large  rivers  that  break  through  high  mount- 
ain masses  and  plateaus. 

VII. — Pairs   of    rivers;    rivers    flowing  in    pairs 
through  the  same  plains : 

Hoang  Ho  and  Yang-tse  Kiang. 
Indus  and  Ganges. 
Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

VIII. — Large    rivers,    that  flow  toward  the  con- 
tinental axis — Volga,  etc. 

Comparison  of  river  basins —  » 

Mississippi  with  La  Plata. 
Amazon  with  St.  Lawrence. 
Colorado  with  Zambesi. 
Magdalena  with  Danube. 

What  large  rivers  have  no  great  heights  of  land  in 
their  basins  ? 


STRUGTURR  OF  THR 
TINRNTS. 


NORTH    AMERICA. 

North  America  is  an  immense  mass  of  rock  pro- 
jecting above  the  ocean  level.  Viewed  transversely 
this  mass  of  rock  (5,700  miles  long,  and  at  the  broadest 
3,000  miles,)  is  in  shape  a  triangular  prism. 


FIRST  STEP, 
A 


A  represents  any  transverse  section  of  North 
America  throughout  its  entire  length,  5,700  miles. 

a  c  represents  a  line  in  the  plane  of  the  base  of 
this  triangular  mass  of  rock,  or  in  the  plane  of  the 
ocean  level. 

b  represents  a  point  in  the  line  which  extends  from 

26 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.     2^ 

north  to  south  through  the  entire  continent.  It  divides 
the  continent  into  two  great  slopes.  This  line  is  formed 
by  the  meeting,  at  their  upper  edges,  of  the  two  great 
slopes  which  form  the  surface  of  North  America.  This 
line,  in  its  relations  to  the  whole  continent,  is  called  the 
continental  axis. 

b  c  is  any  line  in  the  plane  or  surface  of  the  slope 
which  extends  east  from  the  continental  axis  to  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  This  inclined  surface  is  called  the 
long  slope  of  North  America. 

Describe  the  general  features  of  this  slope. 

a  b  is  a  line  in  the  plane  or  surface  of  the  slope 
which  extends  west  from  the  continental  axis  to  the 
Pacific  ocean.  It  is  called  the  short  slope  of  North 
America. 

Describe  the  general  features  of  the  short  slope. 

Compare  the  short  slope  with  the  long  slope  in 
length,  area,  drainage  and  general  structure. 

b  d  represents  any  altitude  of  the  continental  axis. 

c  and  a  are  points  in  the  coast  line  of  North 
America ;  c  coast  line  of  the  Atlantic ;  a  coast  line  of 
the  Pacific. 

NOTE. — This  division  by  the  continental  axis  is  the 
simplest  analysis  of  North  America ;  it  is  the  basis  of 
all  succeeding  analyses. 


28  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 


SECOND  STEP. 


a  c  represents  any  line  in  the  plane  of  the  base  of 
the  continent  (ocean  level). 

a  b  a  line  in  plane  of  short  slope. 

b  c  a  line  in  plane  of  long  slope. 

e  f  represents  a  line  in  the  plane  of  a  short  slope  in 
the  long  slope  and  opposed  to  the  general  inclination 
of  that  slope. 

e  represents  a  point  in  the  line  of  the  meeting,  at 
their  lower  edges,  of  the  two  slopes ;  the  long  slope  and 
the  slope  opposed  to  the  long  slope.  This  line  may  be 
traced  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mackenzie — somewhat  broken  or  inter- 
rupted by  the  depression  that  forms  the  Winnipeg 
basin. 

The  Mississippi  and  Mackenzie  rivers  flow  over  this 
line  with  the  exception  of  that  part  of  the  line  which 
crosses  the  Winnipeg  basin. 

The  line  of  which  e  is  a  point  divides  North 
America  into  two  great  land  masses,  (1)  primary  land 
mass;  (2)  secondary  land  mass.  The  primary  land 
mass  is  one  continuous,  unbroken  land  mass  from  the 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.     29 

Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Bering  strait;  the  secondary 
land  mass  is  separated  into  two  parts  (northern  and 
southern)  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river  basin  (the  Labra- 
dor land  mass  and  the  Appalachian  land  mass). 

Each  land  mass  (primary  and  secondary)  is  divided 
into  two  slopes ;  the  primary  mass  by  the  continental 
axis  (b),  which  may  be  called  in  its  relations  to  the 
primary  land  mass,  the  primary  axis.  The  secondary 
land  mass  by  a  line  of  which  /  is  a  point ;  this  line  is 
the  secondary  axis. 

Bound  North  America. 

All  boundaries  should  be  by  natural  lines. 

Bound  the  long  slope;  the  short  slope.  Bound 
the  primary  land  mass;  the  secondary  land  mass. 

What  is  the  length  and  width  of  each  land  mass  ? 

Bound  the  slope  in  which  b  e  is  a  line.  Bound  the 
slope  in  which  ef  is  a  line.  Northern  part.  Southern 
part.  Bound  the  depression  in  which  b  e  and  e  f  are 
lines. 

What  is  the  line  eg?    f  h? 

Where  in  North  America  does  the  point  e  coincide 
with  plane  in  which  a  c  is  a  line  ? 

NOTE. — The  mental  use  of  bounding  is  to  make 
clearer  the  concept  or  mental  picture.  Any  attempt 
to  bound  from  memorized  words  is  worse  than  useless. 
Always  try  to  bound  without  a  map  or  molded  form, 
and  refer  to  the  map  only  when  the  concept  is  not  clear. 

Compare  slope/  c  with  slope  a  b.     Slope  b  e  with 


30  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

slope  e  f.  Slope  a  b  with  slope  be.  e  f  with  a  b. 
Compare  the  primary  with  the  secondary  land 
mass.  Describe  the  upper  parts  of  the  two  land  masses 
(mountain  systems).  Compare  the  mountain  system  of 
the  primary  mass  with  the  mountain  system  of  the 
secondary  mass.  Compare  the  northern  and  southern 
divisions  of  the  secondary  land  mass. 


THIRD  STEP. 


Drainage,    and.    River     J3asins. — Long 


Mississippi  River  Basin. 

Bound ;  (natural  lines). 

Parts  of  what  two  slopes  form  the  basin  ? 

What  forms  the  source  slope  ?  * 

What  is  the  altitude  of  the  source  slope  ?    1,600  ft. 

Where  does  the  boundary  (water-parting)  coincide 
with  the  primary  axis?  With  the  secondary  axis? 
Where  does  the  water-parting  separate  comparatively 
low  slopes  ? 

Compare  the  right  slope  with  the  left  slope  (right 

*  The  source  slope  is  the  general  inclination  of  the  line  intersecting  the 
two  slopes,  from  the  water-parting  nearest  the  source  to  the  mouth  of  river. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE   CONTINENTS.  3! 

slope  on  right  of  river  going  down).  What  great  river 
basins  are  there  in  the  right  slope?  Bound  each. 
What  great  river  basin  is  there  in  the  left  slope? 
Bound.  Compare  the  basin  of  the  largest  river  in  the 
right  slope  with  the  basin  of  the  largest  river  in  the 
left  slope.  What  mountains  are  wholly  within  the 
Mississippi  river  basin?  Between  what  two  points 
would  a  ship  canal  connect  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence with  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi?  How  deep 
at  the  deepest  must  such  a  canal  be  ? 

What  other  river  basins  does  the  water  parting  of 
the  Mississippi  basin  partially  bound? 

Mackenzie  River  Basin. 

Bound.  What  two  slopes  form  the  basin  ?  Where 
and  to  what  extent  does  the  water-parting  coincide  with 
the  primary  axis  ?  How  are  the  lakes  in  this  basin 
formed?  What  effect  does  the  frozen  mouth  of  the 
river  have  upon  the  lakes  ? 

Compare  the  Mackenzie  basin  with  the  Mississippi 
basin.  What  natural  lines  are  common  to  both  of  them  ? 

St.  Lawrence  Basin. 

Bound,  Describe  right  slope.  Left  slope.  Over 
what  highlands  does  the  water-parting  run?  Over 
what  lowlands?  Account  for  the  formation  of  the 


32  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

great  lakes.  By  what  natural  processes  are  these  lakes 
changing  to  a  river,  i.  e.,  becoming  a  part  of  the  river 
St.  Lawrence  ?  Were  the  Winnipeg  basin  to  pour  its 
waters  into  Lake  Superior,  what  would  the  result  be 
upon  the  lakes  ? 

Compare  Mississippi  basin  with  Mackenzie  basin. 

Hudson  Bay  Basin. 

Bound.  Of  what  other  basins  does  the  water  part- 
ing form  a  partial  boundary  ?  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  included  in  the  Hudson  bay  basin  ? 

Compare  Mackenzie  basin  with  St.  Lawrence 
basin.  Hudson  Bay  basin  with  the  St.  Lawrence  basin. 

In  comparing,  first  see  resemblances,  then  differ- 
ences. 

Atlantic  System  of  River  Basins. 

NOTE. — By  "system  of  basins"  is  meant  a  number' 
of  united  river  basins  which  form  one  slope  and  which 
are  drained  into  one  body  of  water. 

Bound  the  southern  part  (Appalachian  slope). 
What  are  the  principal  river  basins  in  this  system? 
By  what  bays  is  the  slope  indented?  Describe  the 
tide  water  region.  How  is  this  region  now  in  process 
of  formation?  Compare  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
slope  which  includes  the  tide  water  region  with  that 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.     33 

part  of  the  elope  north  of  it  (up  to  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin).  What  are  the  differences  in  the  coast  line, 
i.  e.,  between  the  coast  line  of  the  tide  water  region  and 
the  coast  line  north  of  it  ?  What  river  basins  separate 
the  highlands  of  this  system? 

How  are  the  harbors  formed  in  the  tide-water 
region  ? 

Bound  the  Labrador  system,  i.  e.,  northern  portion 
of  the  Atlantic  system.  Compare  with  Atlantic  slope 
south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin. 

Alabama  System  of  River  Basins. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  are  included  in  this 
system  ? 

This  system  is  really  a  prolongation  of  the  Atlantic 
slope. 

Peninsula  of  Florida  (not  the  State). 

Bound.  To  what  does  Florida  owe  its  structure? 
How  does  it  differ  from  all  other  surface  features  of 
North  America  ?  By  what  rivers  is  it  drained  ? 

Texas  System  of  River  Basins  (including 
Mexican  Slope). 

Bound.  What  river  basins  does  it  contain? 
Where  and  to  what  extent  does  its  water  parting  coin- 
cide with  the  primary  axis  ? 


34  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Bound  the  basin  of  the  Eio  Grande. 
Compare   the    Texan    system   with   the   Alabama 
system ;  with  the  Altantie  system. 

Pacific  System  of  River  Basins. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  form  this  slope? 
Bound  and  describe  the  Yukon  basin;  the  Columbia 
basin ;  the  Colorado  basin ;  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin  basins.  Compare  the  Columbia  basin  with  the 
Colorado  basin.  In  what  do  the  Yukon,  Columbia  and 
Colorado  basins  resemble  each  other?  In  what  do 
these  basins  differ  from  all  other  river  basins  in  North 
America  ? 

Bound  and  describe  enclosed  basin.  Compare  the 
Pacific  system  of  river  basins  with  the  Atlantic  system. 

Compare  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  slope  with  the 
coast  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  Compare  the  upper  parts 
(highlands)  of  the  two  slopes. 

Describe  the  coast  line  of  North  America.  Where 
and  to  what  extent  are  the  wearing  coasts?  The 
building  coasts?  Whence  comes  the  silt  (abraded 
rock)  to  build  the  tide  water  region  ? 

What  parts  of  the  coast  line  are  determined  by 
highlands?  What  by  frozen  soil?  What  by  other 
causes  ? 

Describe  the  structure  of  North  America  very  care- 
fully by  the  mental  picture  you  have  gained  in  this  study. 


SOUTH    AMERICA. 


FIRST  STEP. 


C 


Like  North  America,  South  America  is  an  immense 
triangular  prism. 

From  the  analysis  of  North  America  the  student 
can  in  the  same  way  analyze  this  continent. 

D  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  triangular  prism. 

b  represents  a  point  in  the  continental  axis  which 
separates  the  continent  into  two  slopes — a  long  slope 
and  a  short  or  Pacific  slope. 

What  is  a  c  ? 

What  is  a  b  ?     be? 

Compare  the  long  slope  of  South  America  with  the 
long  slope  of  North  America. 

Compare  the  short  slopes  of  the  two  continents. 

The  line  of  which  b  is  a  point  is  one  continuous 
line  embracing  the  continental  axes  of  the  two  con- 
tinents ;  they  form  indeed  but  one  axis. 

35 


HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 


SECOND  STEP. 


D  represents  a  transverse  section  of  South  America 
across  the  Brazilian  highlands. 

b  c  a  line  in  the  long  slope.  This  line  in  the  long 
slope  is  met  by  a  line  in  the  opposing  slope  d  e. 

d  is  a  point  in  the  line  of  meeting  at  their  lower 
edges  of  the  two  opposing  slopes. 

This  line  of  which  d  is  a  point  runs  from  the 
mouth  of  the  La  Plata  to  the  mouth  .of  the  Orinoco, 
broken  by  the  Amazon  river  basin.  It  divides  like  e 
in  B  the  continent  into  land  masses ;  a  primary  land 
mass  and  a  secondary  land  mass. 

The  secondary  land  mass  is  divided  into  two  dis- 
tinct parts  by  the  Amazon  river  basin ;  the  northern 
part  may  be  called  the  Guiana  land  mass ;  the  southern 
the  Brazilian  land  mass. 


E  represents  a  transverse  section  of  South  America ; 
b  c  is  a  line  in  the  plane  of  the  long  slope ;  it  is, 
also,  a  line  in  the  meeting  of  the  two  slopes  which 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE)  CONTINENTS      37 

form  the  Amazon  river  basin ;  b  c  in  D  is  met  by  an 
opposing  slope  d  e ;  in  b  c  in  E  there  is  no  opposing 
slope. 


d 

a- 


F  is  a  transverse  section  of  South  America  across 
the  northern  secondary  land  mass  (Guiana). 

Bound  the  primary  land  mass. 

Compare  it  with  the  primary  land  mass  of  North 
America. 

Bound  the  secondary  land  mass  (southern  part). 
Compare  it  with  Appalachian  land  mass  in  North 
America.  Bound  the  northern  part  of  the  secondary 
land  mass  (Guiana).  Compare  it  with  the  Labrador 
land  mass  ;  compare  it  with  the  Appalachian  land  mass. 
Bound  the  slope  d  e  in  D ,-  e  c  in  D ;  b  d  in  D ;  b  cm 
E ;  d  e  in  F ;  e  c  in  F. 

What  is  b  f  in  D  1     e  h  in  D  ? 


38  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY, 

THIRD  STEP. 


Analysts  of  Long  Slope,— River  JBasins. 


Amazon  River  Basin. 

Bound.  Over  what  highlands  does  the  water  part- 
ing run  ?  Lowlands  ?  Bound  the  right  slope.  What 
river  basins  are  included  in  the  right  slope  ?  Bound  the 
left  slope.  What  river  basins  does  it  contain?  How 
does  this  basin  join  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco  ?  The 
basin  of  the  La  Plata  ? 

Compare  the  basin  of  the  Amazon  with  the  basin 
of  the  St.  Lawrence ;  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi. 

La  Plata  River  Basin. 

Bound.  Bound  the  right  slope.  Where  and  to 
what  extent  does  the  water  parting  coincide  with  the 
primary  axis?  Bound  the  left  slope.  Where  and  to 
what  extent  does  the  water  parting  coincide  with  the 
secondary  axis?  Over  what  kind  of  land  (highlands 
or  lowlands)  does  the  remainder  of  the  water  parting 
run? 

Compare  the  basin  of  the  La  Plata  with  that  of 
the  Amazon;  with  the  Mississippi  basin;  with  the 
Mackenzie  basin. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.  39 

Orinoco  River  Basin. 

Bound.  Bound  the  right  slope.  The  left  slope. 
Compare  the  right  slope  with  the  left  slope.  Compare 
the  Orinoco  basin  with  the  Mackenzie  basin ;  with  the 
Mississijjj., :  basin ;  with  the  La  Plata  basin ;  with  the 
Amazon  basin. 


FOURTH  STEP. 


River  JBastn,  Systems. 


Brazilian  System. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  form  this  system? 
What  line  separates  it  from  the  La  Plata  basin  ?  The 
Amazon  basin  ? 

Compare  the  Brazilian  system  with  Appalachian 
system;  with  the  Labrador  system. 

Guiana  System. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  form  this  slope  or  sys- 
tem? This  slope  is  divided  into  three  divisions,  i.  e., 
the  coast  division ;  the  middle  division ;  the  upper  or 


40  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

mountainous  division.  Compare  the  Guiana  system 
with  the  Labrador  system ;  with  the  Appalachian  sys- 
tem ;  with  the  Brazilian  system. 

Patagonian    System. 

Bound.  Principal  river  basins.  What  is  the 
western  boundary  line  ?  Compare  with  the  Texan  sys- 
tem ;  the  Alabama  system ;  the  Guiana  system ;  the 
Brazilian  system. 

The  Maracaybo  Basin. 

Bound.  Describe.  Compare  with  the  Hudson 
Bay  basin. 

The  Magdalena  Basin. 

Bound.  Describe.  Compare  with  the  Colorado 
basin ;  the  Yukon  basin ;  the  Columbia  basin. 


THE   SHORT   SLOPE. 

The  Pacific  System. 

Bound.  Give  general  description.  What  river 
basins  form  this  slope  ?  The  rivers  here  are  few  and 
short.  Why  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.     41 

Compare  with  the  Pacific  system  of  North  America. 

• 
Give  resemblances  ;  differences.     Compare  coast   lines. 

Compare  mountain  systems..  Compare  Brazilian  sys- 
tem with  Pacific  system;  A'tlantic  system  of  North 
America. 

Comparison   of   the  two  Continents. 

Resemblances,  first ;  differences,  second.  Com- 
pare the  two  great  masses  of  rock ;  area  with  area ; 
length  with  length ;  breadth  with  breadth ;  outline  with 
outline;  projections;  indentations;  axes;  slopes;  river 
basins ;  river  basin  systems ;  mountain  systems.  Give 
ten  marked  resemblances  ;  ten  marked  differences. 


EURASIA. 

• 
In  Eurasia,  Europe  and  Asia  are  comprehended  in 

one  vast   structure  extending  from   Bering    straits  to 
straits  of  Gibraltar. 


FIRST    STEP 


H  represents  any  transverse  section  (north  to 
south)  of  Eurasia. 

Like  North  America  and  South  America,  Eurasia 
may  be  looked  upon  as  an  immense  triangular  prism. 

a  represents  a  point  in  the  coa,st  line  of  the  Pacific, 
Indian  ocean  or  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

c  a  point  in  the  Arctic  or  Atlantic  ocean. 

a  c  a  line  in  the  plane  of  the  ocean  level. 

b  represents  a  point  in  the  natural  line  of  the 
meeting  at  their  upper  edges  of  two  vast  slopes. 

What  is  this  line  ? 

How  long  is  it  (approximately)  ? 

Describe  the  northern  or  long  slope. 

42 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.     43 

Compare  it  with  the  long  slope  of  North  America. 
With  long  slope  in  South  America.  Compare  it  with 
the  long  slopes  of  North  America  and  South  America 
taken  together. 

Describe  the  upper  part  of  the  long  slope  of 
Eurasia.  The  lower  part. 

What  part  of  this  great  surface  inclines  toward  the 
continental  axis? 

Describe  the  short  or  southern  slope. 

Compare  it  with  the  short  slope  of  North  America  ? 
Short  slope  of  South  America.  With  both  taken  to- 
gether. What  features  do  you  find  in  the  short  slope 
of  Eurasia  that  are  not  found  in  the  short  slope  of 
North  America  or  South  America  ? 

Trace  the  continental  axis  the  entire  extent  of  the 
continent. 

NOTE. — Eurasia  is  one  great  land  mass.  It  is  not 
divided  into  primary  and  secondary  land  masses  as  in 
North  America  and  South  America.  In  the  latter  con- 
tinents the  primary  and  secondary  masses  are  divided 
by  lines  formed  by  long  slopes  meeting  at  their  lower 
edges.  The  lower  parts  of  these  slopes  are  vast  plains. 
It  will  be  seen  that  no  such  conditions  exist  in  Eurasia 
except  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  on  the  long  slope 
and  the  Indian  peninsula  (the  Deccan)  on  the  short 
slope.  The  peninsulas  of  Italy  and  Spain  are  con- 
nected with  the  main  highlands  by  mountain  ranges. 


44  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

SECOND  STEP. 


s  of  Long  Slope. 


1.— Siberian  River  System. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  are  included  in  this 
system  ? 

Bound  the  Lena  river  basin. 

The  Yenesei  river  basin.     The  Obi  basin. 

Describe  the  surface  of  the  upper  part  of  this 
system.  The  lower  part.  The  middle  or  central  part. 
Compare  with  Mississippi  river  basin. 

2.— System  of  Northern  Europe. 

Bound.  What  river  basins  form  this  system? 
Describe  the  upper  or  highest  part  of  this  slope.  The 
lower.  The  central.  Compare  with  Siberian  system. 
With  Atlantic  system  in  North  America. 

3.— The  Enclosed    Basin.* 

This  basin  comprises  the  surface  of  plateaus  and 
mountains  that  is  not  drained  into  the  ocean.  Bound. 
Describe.  Compare  with  enclosed  basin  of  North 
America. 

*Not  including  Aral  and  Caspian  basins. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  CONTINENTS.      45 

4.— Great   Depression  of    System  of  the 
Aral,  Caspian  and  Black  Seas. 

Bound.  Area.  What  land  north  of  these  seas 
slopes  toward  the  continental  axis  ? 

Where  does  the  boundary  line  run  across  highlands  ? 
Lowlands?  Bound  Aral  system.  Caspian  system. 
Bound  and  describe  the  Volga  river  basin.  Bound 
Black  sea  system.  Compare  this  system  (Aral,  Caspian, 
Black  sea  system)  with  Mississippi  basin.  With  Ama- 
zon, La  Plata  and  Orinoco  basins  (taken  together  as 
one  surface). 


5. — Scandinavian  Peninsula,  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

Bound  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Describe  drain- 
age. What  connection  may  there  have  been  between 
Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Great  Britain?  Describe 
the  structure  of  Great  Britain.  Of  Ireland. 


6.— The  Danube   River  Basin. 

Bound.     Compare  with  Magdalena  river  basin  in 
South  America. 


46  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

THIRD   STEP. 


Analysts  of  Short  Slope. 


Peninsulas  and  Plateaus. 

1.  Kamchatka. 

2.  Corea  and  Chinese  peninsulas. 

3.  Malay. 

4.  Hindoostan,  plateau  of '  Deccan. 

5.  Plateau  of  Iran. 

6.  Plateau  and  peninsula  of  Arabia. 

7.  Asia  Minor. 

8.  Greece. 

9.  Italy. 
10.  Spain. 

Bound  each.     Describe.     Describe  drainage. 

Compare  the  Deccan  with  Greece,  with  Italy,  with 
Spain.  Compare  Kamchatka  with  Italy.  The  Ma- 
lay peninsula  with  Spain. 

River  Basins. 

1.  Armur  river  basin. 

2.  Yang-tse,  Kiang  and  Hoang  Ho. 

3.  Cambodia. 

4.  Indus,  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra. 

5.  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 


STRUCTURE   OF   THE   CONTINENTS.  47 

6.  Po. 

7.  Bhone. 

Bound  Basins.  Compare  Amur  basin  with  Yukon 
and  Columbia  basins.  Compare  Yang-tse  Kiang  and 
Hoang  Ho  basins  with  Euphrates  and  Tigris ;  Indus  and 
Granges;  Amazon;  Mississippi.  Compare  the  Ganges 
basin  with  Po ;  with  Orinoco. 

Continental  Islands. 

1.  Japan  Islands. 

2.  Philippine  Islands. 

3.  Sumatra,  Java  and  Borneo. 

4.  Ceylon. 

5.  Sicily. 

6.  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 

Describe  structure  and  drainage.  Compare  Japan 
with  Great  Britain ;  Ceylon  with  Sicily. 

Indentations  and  Projections. 

1.  Lower  edge  of  short  slope. 

2.  Lower  edge  of  long  slope. 


AFRICA. 


Soft*. 


Transverse  section  of  Southern  Africa. 

a  c  represents  a  line  in  plane  of  ocean  level. 

b  a  point  in  line  of  highest  points  or  continental 
axis.  d  a  point  in  a  line  of  what  may  be  called  the 
secondary  axis. 

Africa  is  a  vast  plateau.  The  lack  of  long  and 
broad  slopes  is  the  plain  reason  why  it  remains,  for  the 
greater  part,  in  barbarism.  Most  of  its  civilization 
is  found  upon  the  short  slopes — represented  by  a  b  and 
d  c.  Africa  cannot  be  analyzed  like  other  continents 
because  it  is  not  divided  by  natural  lines  that  separate 
it  into  great  natural  divisions. 


FIRST  STEP. 
1.— Basin  of  the  Nile. 

Bound.     Area.      How  far  does  it  flow  through  a 
rainless  land  ?     What  would  be  the  effect  on  Egypt  if 

48 


STRUCTURE    OF   THE  CONTINENTS.  49 

the  Nile  were  turned  into  the  Bed  Sea  above  the  catar- 
acts ?  Compare  the  Nile  basin  with  the  Mississippi 
basin,  the  Amazon  basin,  the  Volga  basin.  Describe 
the  Nile  basin. 

2.— Barbary  Slope. 

Bound.  Describe.  What  are  the  river  basins 
which  form  this  slope  ?  Compare  with  Guiana  slope, 
with  Brazilian  slope,  with  Appalachian  slope. 

3.— Gold  Coast  Slope. 

Bound.  Describe.  Compare  with  Barbary  slope ; 
with  Guiana  slope ;  with  Appalachian  slope.  What  are 
the  principal  river  basins  ? 

4.— Desert  of  Sahara. 

Bound.  Describe.  Describe  oases;  mountains. 
Eiver  basin  or  Wady  systems.  How  can  a  part 
of  the  great  desert  be  flooded  by  canal  cut  from  the 
Mediterranean  sea  ?  Compare  with  the  desert  of  Ara- 
bia ;  with  the  desert  in  the  plateau  of  Iran. 

5.— Soudan. 

NOTE, — Soudan  is  a  country  of  undetermined  area, 
extending  south  of  the  desert  and  north  of  the  Gold 


50  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY, 

Coast  slope  across  the  continent  to  the  Nile  basin. 

Describe.  Bound  approximately.  By  what  rivers 
is  it  drained? 

6.— Southern  Africa. 

NOTE.  — The  peninsula-shaped  country  called  South- 
ern Africa  may  be  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  line  run- 
ning across  the  continent  east  from  the  Bight  of  Bia- 
fia ;  it  comprises  a  large  part  of  the  Nile  basin ;  it  is  a 
vast  plateau. 

Describe.  Describe  the  short  slope  from  the  con- 
tinental axis  to  the  Indian  ocean.  Describe  the  short 
slope  from  the  secondary  axis  to  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
The  Zambesi  basin,  the  Congo  basin,  the  Orange 
river  basin.  Compare  the  Congo  basin  with  the  Zam- 
besi basin. 

7.— Continental  Islands. 

Madagascar. 
Mauritius. 

8.— Indentations  and  Projections. 

Compare  Southern  Africa  with  the  southern  part 
of  South  America. 


AUSTRALIA. 

This  continent,  like  Africa,  is  a  plateau  sur- 
rounded by  mountains,  with  a  short  slope  or  slopes  to 
the  ocean. 

1.  Eastern  slope. 

Bound.  Describe.  How  drained.  Compare  with 
Barbary  slope;  with  Guiana  slope;  Appalachian  slope. 

2.  Western  slope. 

Same  questions  as  upon  Eastern  slope. 

3.  Northern  slope. 

4.  Southern  slope. 

5.  Great  Basin  or  Plateau. 

Compare  with  Sahara ;  with  plateau  of  Southern 
Africa. 

Comparison  of  Continents. 

Compare  North  America  with  South  America, 
Africa,  Eurasia  and  Australia.  Compare  South  Amer- 
ica as  above;  Eurasia,  Africa,  Australia.  Compare 
areas,  lengths,  breadths,  coast  lines.  Eatio  of 
length  of  coast  line  to  area  in  each  continent. 


THR    WORLJD   AS   A   WHOI^R. 


With  the  concepts  of  the  continents  already  ac- 
quired, the  student  is  now  ready  to  form  a  concept  of 
the  world  as  a  whole. 


FIRST  STEP. 

1  .—Relative  Positions  of  the  Continents 
on  the  Globe. 

a  Eastern  and  Western  hemispheres. 

b  Northern  and  Southern  hemispheres. 

c  Between  what  two  lines  of  longitude  is  each  con- 
tinent situated? 

d  Between  what  lines  of  latitude  ? 

e  In  what  zones  ? 

/Eelative  length  and  breadth  of  each  continent. 

g  Compare  areas  of  continents. 

h  Compare  heights  of  continents.  Greatest  heights. 
Average  heights. 

52 


THE    WORLD    AS   A   WHOLE.  53 

SECOND  STEP. 
1  .—Relation  of  Continents  to  Oceans. 

To  what  oceans  do  the  short  slopes  of  the  con- 
tinents incline? 

i 

The  long  slopes  ? 

Trace  the  short  slopes  of  the  Americas  and  Eura- 
sia from  Cape  Horn  to  Spain. 

Trace  the  long  slope  in  the  same  way. 

Show  relation  of  continents  to  the  North  pole. 

To  the  South  pole. 

2.— Distances  Over  the  Oceans  Between 
Continents. 

a  The  shortest  distances. 

b  The  longest  distances. 

Over  how  many  miles  of  water  would  one  be 
obliged  to  go  in  order  to  travel  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape 
Finisterre  ?  * 

From  Cape  Horn  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope? 

From  Cape  Horn  to  Melbourne  in  Australia? 

Relation  of  Oceans   to    Drainage. 

1.  Slopes  drained  by  the  Pacific  ocean. 

2.  Slopes  drained  by  the  Indian  ocean. 

*  Travel  as  far  as  possible  on  land. 


54  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

3.  Slopes  drained  by  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

4.  Slopes  drained  by  the  Arctic  ocean. 

5.  Enclosed  basins. 


THIRD  STEP. 
1.— Review  of  Structure  of   Continents. 

NOTE. — If  the  concepts  of  continents  have  been 
clearly  formed,  the  pupil  can  answer  the  following  ques- 
tions very  easily : 

Trace  the  continental  axes  of  the  Americas  and 
Eurasia  from  Cape  Horn  to  Spain. 

Name  the  mountain  ranges  in  order  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Spain  qver  which  the  continental  axes  pass. 

How  many  and  what  are  the  plains  on  the  long 
slopes  from  Cape  Horn  to  Spain? 

Compare  the  areas  of  these  plains.  Which  is  the 
largest  ? 

Name  all  the  river  basins  in  order  that  form  the 
long  slopes  from  Cape  Horn  to  Spain. 

Name  the  prominent  river  basins  on  the  short 
slopes  from  Cape  Horn  to  Spain. 

Name  the  peninsulas,  gulfs,  bays  and  seas  in  order 
which  indent  the  short  slopes.  The  long  slopes. 

What  two  continents  are  the  nearest  alike  in 
structure  ? 


THE   WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  55 

Between  what  two  continents  are  the  greatest 
differences  in  structure? 

NOTE. — These  questions  should  all  be  answered 
from  the  student's  concept  and  not  by  means  of  mem- 
orized words. 

2.— Islands. 

a  Kelation  of  continental  islands  to  the  continents. 

Compare  Great  Britain,  the  Japan  islands,  Mada- 
gascar, Java,  Borneo,  New  Guinea,  West  Indies,  Tas- 
mania, New  Zealand. 

b  Oceanic  islands,  Australasia,  etc. 


FOURTH  STEP. 

1  .—General    Distribution   of    Heat   Over 
the  Earth's  Surface. 

I. — By  vertical  and  slanting  rays,  i.  e.,  rays  at 
angles  to  vertical  rays. 

The  general  distribution  of  heat  depends  upon  ver- 
tical and  slanting  (oblique)  rays. 

The  greatest  quantity  of  heat  is  distributed  (1) 
by  vertical  rays ;  (2)  a  less  quantity  by  rays  at  acute 
angles  with  verticality;  (3)  still  less  by  rays  at  a 
medium  angle ;  (4)  the  least  by  rays  at  the  greatest 
angle. 


56  HOW  TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Gives  full  tropical  heat. 

2.  Sub-tropical  heat. 

3.  Medium  or  temperate  heat. 

4.  The  least  amount  of  heat,  frigid  zones. 

The  changes  in  distribution  of  heat  from  verticality 
to  the  greatest  obliquity  is  exceedingly  gradual,  measured 
only  by  the  very  slightest  change  in  the  slant  of  rays. 
There  are  no  abrupt  changes  caused  by  the  rays  them- 
selves. Study. 

a  Causes  of  vertical  and  slanting  rays.  Why  do 
slanting  rays  distribute  less  heat  than  vertical  rays  ? 
Cover  more  space;  pass  through  thicker  masses  of 
atmosphere. 

b  Orbit  of  the  earth.     What  is  it  ? 

c  Annual  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun. 
Perihelion,  aphelion.  The  sun  is  nearer  the  earth  in 
winter  than  it  is  in  summer.  Why  is  the  North  tem- 
perate zone  cold  in  winter? 

d  Plane  of  the  earth's  orbit ;  what  is  it  ? 

e  Inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  its 
orbit. 

/  Distribution  of  heat  by  rotation  of  the  earth. 
How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  does  the  sun  shine 
upon  at  a  time  ? 

g  Division  of  the  earth's  surface  into  zones  or 
belts  of  heat. 


THE  WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  57 


PKOBLEMS. 

What  are  the  causes  of  the  division  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face into  zones  ? 

If  the  earth's  axis  were  at  right  angles  with  plane  of  its 
orbit,  how  many  and  what  would  the  zones  be  ? 

If  the  earth's  axis  were  inclined  forty-five  degrees  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit,  what  would  the  result  be  ?  Would  such  an  in- 
clination of  the  earth's  axis  be  more  favorable  to  the  distribution 
of  heat  ? 

What  causes  the  arctic  zones  ?  The  torrid  zones  ?  The  tem- 
perate zones? 

Bound  the  zones. 

On  what  day  does  no  ray  from  the  sun  touch  the  arctic 
zone  ?  The  antarctic  zone  ? 

How  broad  is  the  belt  of  vertical  rays  ? 

When  does  a  vertical  ray  touch  its  northernmost  limit  ? 
Southernmost  limit  ? 

How  broad  a  space  (east  to  west)  do  the  slanting  and  vertical 
rays  cover  at  any  one  time  ? 

How  long  a  distance  (north  to  south)  do  the  sun's  rays 
cover  at  any  one  time  ? 

How  long  a  time  is  any  given  space  on  the  earth's  surface 
heated  by  rays  at  the  same  slant  ? 

How  many  times  in  the  year  is  the  same  space  heated  by  rays 
at  the  same  slant  ? 

What  causes  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles  ? 

The  tropic  of  Cancer  ?  The  tropic  of  Capricorn  ?  The 
equator  ? 

Give  the  distances  in  degrees  and  miles  between  arctic 
circle  and  the  north  pole.  Arctic  circle  and  tropic  of  Cancer. 
Tropic  of  Cancer  and  equator.  Equator  and  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. Tropic  of  Cancer  and  tropic  of  Capricorn.  Tropic  of 
Capricorn  and  antarctic  circle.  When  are  the  equinoxes? 
What  causes  the  equinoxes  ?  The  solstices  ? 

Describe  the  differences  of  heat  in  the  different  zones. 


58  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

2.— Distribution    of   Heat    by   Elevations 
Above  the  Ocean  Level. 

Why  does  the  heat  grow  less  as  we  ascend  to 
heights  above  the  ocean  level  ? 

NOTE. — Study  the  barometer. 

How  can  heights  be  measured  by  a  barometer? 
Why  does  it  take  less  heat  to  boil  water  on  great 
heights,  than  on  the  plain  below  ? 

Is  boiling  water  as  hot  upon  a  high  mountain  as 
it  is  upon  lower  levels  ? 

What  portions  of  the  surfaces  of  continents  are 
colder  than  the  average  temperature  of  the  zones 
which  contain  them  ?  In  what  zone  can  the  tempera- 
ture of  every  other  zone  be  found  ?  In  what  zone  can 
the  temperature  of  two  zones  be  found?  What  would 
be  the  effect  if  the  continents  were  10,000  feet  higher 
on  an  average? 

3.— Distribution  of  Heat  by  Proximity  to 

and   Distance  from  the  Ocean   by 

Winds  and  Ocean  Currents. 

A  careful  study  of  ocean  currents  should  here  be 
made. 

Trace  the  following  ocean  currents  on  the  map  and 
ascertain  their  causes : 


THE   WORLD    AS   A   WHOLE.  59 

Pacific  Currents. 

1.  The  great  equatorial  current. 

2.  South  equatorial  current. 

3.  North  equatorial  current. 

4.  Eeturn  current. 

5.  Polar  currents. 

6.  Antarctic  drift  current. 

Atlantic  Currents. 

1.  Equatorial  current. 

2.  Gulf  stream. 

3.  Polar  currents. 

Currents  of  the   Indian  Ocean. 

1.  North  equatorial  current  (effect  of  monsoons). 

2.  South  equatorial  currents. 

NOTE. — This  classification  is  taken  from  Guyot's 
Physical  Geography. 

Winds  or  Currents  of  Atmosphere. 

1.  Trade  winds. 

2.  Anti-trade  winds. 

3.  Calms  of  the  equatorial  zone. 


60  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

4.  The  calm-belts  of  the  north  and  south  tem- 
perate zones. 

5.  Polar  winds. 

6.  Land  and  sea  breezes. 

7.  Monsoons. 

8.  Local   winds,   such   as  the  sirocco,  khamsin, 
harmattan,  mistral,  bora,  purga  and  the  northers. 

This  classification  is  taken  substantially  from  Ap- 
pleton's  Physical  Geography. 

Questions  Upon  Winds  and  Ocean  Cur- 
rents. 

What  is  the  main  cause  of  ocean  currents  ? 

What  is  the  main  cause  of  the  trade  and  anti- 
trade winds  ? 

What  effect  has  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon 
ocean  currents?  Upon  winds?  Why?  What  effect 
have  the  winds  upon  ocean  currents  ? 

Do  winds  cause  ocean  currents  ? 

Do  ocean  currents  cause  winds? 

What  obstacles  change  the  direction  of  ocean  cur- 
rents ?  What  effect  do  these  obstacles  have  upon  the 
direction  of  winds?  Is  the  atmosphere  stationary  in 
calms?  If  heat  expands  air  and  forces  it  up,  why 
does  not  the  same  air  always  descend  when  cooled  ? 
How  can  a  current  of  cold  air  flow  under  (in  an  oppo- 
site direction)  a  current  of  warmer  air? 


THE   WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  6 1 

NOTE. — Before  the  distribution  of  heat  by  winds 
and  ocean  currents  can  be  understood,  the  effects  of 
the  retention  and  radiation  of  heat  must  be  studied. 

Which  retains  more  heat,  land  or  water  ?     Why  ? 

What  kind  of  soil  retains  the  most  heat ;  gravel, 
sand,  loam  or  clay?  Why? 

What  is  the  law  of  retention  and  radiation? 

Explain  the  causes  of  land  and  sea  breezes,  mon- 
soons and  other  periodical  winds. 


How  Winds    and    Ocean    Currents    Dis- 
tribute Heat  and  Cold. 

What'  is  the  general  effect  of  winds  upon  tempera- 
ture? When  is  the  thermometer  lowered  by  winds? 
When  raised  ?  Whence  come  the  winds,  generally,  that 
raise  the  temperature  ?  That  lower  it  ?  Why  ?  What 
effect  have  ocean  currents  upon  the  winds  which  pass 
over  them?  Compare  the  latitude  of  Labrador  with 
that  of  Great  Britain.  Compare  the  temperature. 
Compare  in  the  same  manner  Southern  Greenland 
with  Iceland;  Labrador  with  British  Columbia;  New 
England  with  France ;  Akska  with  Siberia. 

Explain  the  causes  of  the  differences  in  tempera- 
ture. 

Why  is  it  colder  in  Prussia  than  it  is  in  England  ? 


62  HOW    TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

NOTE. — Study  carefully  isothermal  lines  and  explain 
the  causes  why  places  in  the  same  latitude  have  differ- 
ent temperatures.  See  map  of  Isothermal  Lines,  p.  66, 
Appleton's  Physical  Geography. 

Why  are  places  near  the  ocean  very  cold  or  warm 
in  winter?  What  places  near  the  ocean  are  much 
warmer  than  other  places  in  the  same  latitude  ? 

Countries   Protected    from    Cold  Winds 
by  Mountains. 

1.  Compare  the  temperature  of  Switzerland  with 
that  of  Italy.     What  causes  the  difference? 

2.  Compare  the  temperature  of  India  with  that 
of  the  land  immediately  north  of  the  Himalayas. 

Distribution  of  Moisture. 

In  what  part  of  the  ocean  is  the  greatest  amount 
of  water  evaporated?  Why?  Where  does  the  vapor 
go  ?  What  winds  bring  the  most  moisture  to  the  contin- 
ents? What  winds  bring  the  rain  to  North  America? 
To  South  America  ?  To  Eurasia  ?  To  Africa  ?  What 
parts  of  continents  have  the  most  rain  ?  Why  ?  What 
is  the  effect  of  highlands  upon  rainfall?  What  high- 
lands intercept  rain?  Kefer  to  map  of  "Rain  Over  the 
Globe/'  p.  86,  Guyot's  Physical  Geography.  What  parts 
of  continents  are  rainless  ?  Why  ?  Why  is  the  desert  of 


THE   WORLD   AS    A   WHOLE.  63 

Sahara  rainless  ?  Why  is  there  little  rain  in  the  great 
central  basin  of  North  America?  What  parts  of  con- 
tinents receive  the  greatest  amount  of  rain?  Why? 
Why  do  the  Western  Ghauts  receive  such  an  immense 
amount  of  rain  ?  WThat  other  causes  of  condensation 
are  there  except  the  cold  tops  of  mountains  ?  What 
effect  has  the  Arctic  Current  upon  New  England? 
What  are  periodical  rains  ?  Describe  the  tropical  rains 
and  their  causes  ?  What  parts  of  continents  are  sub- 
ject to  periodical  rains  ?  What  are  the  causes  of  the 
periodical  rains  of  California?  See  questions,  p.  96, 
Guyot's  Physical  Geography. 

Distribution  of  Vegetation. 

The  distribution  of  vegetation  depends  upon : 

1.  Distribution  of  kinds  of  soil. 

2.  Distribution  of  heat. 

3.  Distribution  of  moisture. 

4.  Kinds  of  soil,  from  the  coarsest  gravel  to  the 
finest  vegetable  mold,  depend  entirely  upon   structure. 
Alluvial  and  vegetable  soils  are  principally  found  at  the 
lower  edges   of  long  slopes ;  e.  g.,  Mississippi  valley, 
Ganges   valley,    Amazon   valley,  Yang-tse    Kiang,  and 
Hoang  Ho  valley.     Poor  soil,  on  the  other  hand,  is  gen- 
erally found  at  the  upper  edges   of  long  slopes.    '  Some 
very  rich   soil  can    be  accounted  for  by  other  forms  of 


64  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

structure    than    those  which   now   exist;  e.    g.,  Volga 
basin. 

A  general  concept  of  structures  will  lead  to  a  good 
general  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  kinds  of  soil. 

The  distribution  of  heat  depends  upon : 

1.  Oblique  and  vertical  rays  of  the  sun. 

2.  Changes  in  obliquity  or  inclination  of  rays. 

3.  Height  of  land. 

4.  Heat  brought  by  warm  winds  over  warm  ocean 
currents. 

5.  Proximity  to  and  distance  from  the  ocean. 

6.  Protection  of  surface   against   cold  winds  by 
mountain  heights. 

7.  Openness  of  surface  to  cold  winds,  i.  e.,  prairies, 
steppes,  pampas. 

8.  Differences  in  radiation  from  water  and  from 
different  kinds  of  soil. 

The  distribution  of  moisture  depends  upon : 

1.  Warm  winds  coming  over  warm  ocean  currents. 

2.  Condensation  of  vapor  in  clouds  by  cold  heights. 

3.  Condensation  of  vapor  by  cold  winds  from  the 
North  and  from  Arctic  ocean  currents. 

4.  Vegetation  exercises  a  great  influence  upon  the 
evaporation  and  condensation  of  moisture. 

5.  Periodical  rains  are  caused  by  changes  in  heated 
areas,  owing  to  changes  of   the  earth's  relative    posi- 
tion as  it  moves  around  the  sun  in  its  orbit. 


THE   WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  65 

From  a  knowledge  of  soils,  heat,  and  moisture,  the 
sterility  and  relative  arability  of  a  continental  surface 
may  be  determined. 

General  Distribution  of  Lands  in  Regard 
to  Vegetable  Life. 

1.  Barren  or  sterile  lands. 

2.  Lands  nearly  barren. 

3.  Arable  lands,  i.  e.,  those  which  repay  cultiva- 
tion. 

4.  Fertile  lands. 

5.  Very  fertile  lands. 

Barren  or  sterile  lands  and  lands  nearly  barren  are 
caused : 

1.  By   lack   of  heat.     Lands  bordering  upon  the 
Arctic  ocean,  e.  g.,  Tundra. 

2.  Upper  parts  of  high  mountains. 

3.  By  lack  of  moisture — Sahara,  desert  of  Gobi, 
.Kalhari  desert,  central  part  of  Australia. 

Very  fertile  lands  are  caused : 

1.  By   temperate   heat,    plenty  of  moisture   and 
rich  soil. 

2.  By  tropical  heat,  plenty  of  moisture  and  rich 
soil. 

3.  By  tropical  heat,  plenty  of  moisture  and  fair 
.soil,  e..  g.,  Brazil. 


66  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Divide  up  the  surfaces  of  all  the  continents  accord- 
ing to  this  classification  of  soils,  and  give  reasons. 

Distribution  of  Vegetable  Life. 

Distribution  by  zones : 

1.  Plants  peculiar  to  tropics. 

2.  Plants  peculiar  to  sub-tropics. 

3.  Plants  peculiar  to  temperate  zones. 

4.  Plants  peculiar  to  frigid  zones. 

Distribution  of  Forests  and  Grassy 
Plains. 

1.  Eegions  of  the  pine. 

2.  Kegions  of  the  palm. 

3.  Prairies,  steppes,  llanos,  pampas. 

4.  Great  forest  regions,  e.  g.,  selvas. 

Plant  life  peculiar  to  each  continent,  e.  g.,  Aus- 
tralia. 

Distribution  of  Plants  in  Regard  to 
Utility. 

1.  Food  plants. 

2.  Shelter  plants. 

3.  Clothing  plants. 

4.  Medicinal  plants. 

5.  Plants  used  for  luxury. 

6.  Plants  used  for  ornament. 


THE  WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  67 

On  what  lands  is  rice  raised?  Wheat?  Eye? 
Corn?  Potatoes?  Sugar  cane?  Cotton?  Flax? 
Caoutchouc?  Forests  for  building?  Tobacco?  Cof- 
fee? Logwood?  Grapes?  Figs?  Dates?  Cinchona 
tree  ?  Spices  ? 

Bound  and  describe  the  largest  wheat,  rice,  corn, 
and  potato  growing  countries.  Give  reasons. 

Where  is  the  largest  wheat  country  in  the  world  ? 
Bice?  Corn?  Forest?  (See  p.  94,  Appleton's  Phys- 
ical Geography ;  p,  98,  Guyot's  Physical  Geography.) 

Distribution  of  Animal  Life. 

The  distribution  of  animal  life  depends  funda- 
mentally upon  the  distribution  of  vegetable  life,  and 
as  we  have  seen  that  vegetable  life  depends  upon  struc- 
ture, heat,  moisture  and  soil,  so  animal  life  is  the 
direct  product  of  all  these  causes. 

Distribution  of  Animals  in  Zones. 

1.  Animals  peculiar  to  the  torrid  zones. 

2.  Animals  peculiar  to  the  sub-tropics. 

3.  Animals  peculiar  to  the  temperate  zones. 

4.  Animals  peculiar  to  the  frigid  zones. 
Other  conditions : 

1.  Animals  peculiar  to  forests  or  woody  countries. 

2.  To  open  lands,  e,  #.,  steppes,  prairies. 


68  HOW    TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

3.  To  highlands  and  high  mountains. 

4.  To  lowlands. 

5.  To  marshy  lands. 

6.  To  very  dry  lands. 

Distribution  in  Regard  to  Use. 

1.  Animals  used  for  food. 

2.  For  clothing. 

3.  For  shelter. 

4.  Beasts  of  burden  and  those  used  for  transpor- 
tation. 

5.  Scavengers. 

6.  Useless  animals.* 

What  countries  produce  the  most  sheep  ?  Cattle  ? 
Horses?  Elephants?  Camels?  (See  p.  104,  Apple- 
ton's  Physical  Geography.) 

Distribution  of  Races  of  Man. 

The  classification  here  used  is  taken  from  Apple- 
ton's  Physical  Geography. 
1.     THE  BLACK  TYPE  : 

a  Negroes.  e  Bushmen. 

b  Negritos.  /Australasians. 

c  Bantu.  g  Tasmanians. 

d  Nama.  h  Milanesians. 

*Are  there  any  useless  animals  ? 


THE  WORLD   AS  A  WHOLE. 
2.     THE  YELLOW  TYPE — Mongolian  section : 

II. — Indo-Chinese. 


I. — Mongol-Altai. 
a  Turks. 
b  Yakuts. 
c  Tatars. 
d  Kirghiz. 
e  Mongols. 
/  Ostiaks. 
g  Samoyeds. 


III. — Hyperboreans. 
a  Yukagirs. 
b  Kariaks. 
c  Kamtchatdales. 


a  Chinese. 
b  Anamese. 
c  Burmese. 
d  Thibetans. 
e  Tai. 
/  Coreans. 
g  Japanese. 

IV. — Esquimaux. 
a  of  Asia. 
b  of  America. 
c  of  Greenland. 
d  Aleuts. 

V. — European  Section : 
a  Magyars  of  Austria. 
b  Hungary. 

VI. — Maylayo-Polynesian  section : 
a  Pacific  islands  (Sandwich). 
b  Maories  of  New  Zealand, 
c  Malays. 

VII. — American  Indian. 
VIII. — Mound  Builders. 
IX.— Cliff  Dwellers. 
X. — Aztecs  and  Peruvians. 


70  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

3.     THE  WHITE  TYPE  : 

a  Teutonic  or  In  do- Germanic. 

b  Caucasic.  /  Semitic. 

• 

c  Afghan.  g  Hamitic. 

d  Berber.  h  Asiatic  Aryans. 

e  Komanic.  i  Maiotzi. 

j  Ainos. 

(See  Ethnological  Map,  p.  113,  Appleton's  Phys- 
ical Geography.) 

Locate  each  type  and  each  race  under  the  type. 
Describe  the   characteristics   of  each  race;   color, 
form,    skull,   height,  _ features,   intellectual  and    moral 
qualities. 

What   influence    has    the    structure,    climate    and 
vegetation  upon  each  race  ? 

Describe  food,  clothing,  shelter,  occupations,  relig- 
ions and  degrees  of  civilization  of  each  race. 

Distribution  of  Minerals  and  Metals. 

Precious  metals : 

1.     Gold.  2.  Silver. 
Metals  used  in  manufactures : 

1.  Iron.  5.  Lead. 

2.  Platinum.  6.  Tin. 

3.  Mercury.  7.  Zinc. 

4.  Copper.  8.  Nickel. 


THE   WORLD   AS   A   WHOLE.  71 

Minerals  used  in  building : 

1.  Limestone.  3.     Sandstones. 

2.  Granite.  4.     Clays  and  chalks. 
Fuels : 

1.  Coal.  3.     Peat. 

i 

2.  Petroleum.  4.     Natural  Gas. 
Other  Minerals : 

1.     Kock  salt.  2.     Graphite. 

(See  map,  p.  118,  Appleton's  Physical  Geography.) 

Political  Divisions. 

Having  acquired  a  clear  concept  of  the  world,  its 
structure,  climate,  vegetation,  animal  life,  races  of 
men,  mineral  products,  the  student  is  now  ready  to 
divide  the  continents  into  political  divisions.  Draw  a 
map  of  each  continent  on  the  blackboard  or  upon  a 
large  sheet  of  paper.  Separate  the  continents  into 
political  divisions  by  red  chalk  or  red  pencil. 

Size  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  largest  areas 
may  be  made  the  basis  of  the  first  classification. 

Largest  Political  Divisions. 

SQUARE  MILES. 

Russian  Empire  in  Europe  and  Asia 8,637,040 

British  Empire  in  Europe,  Australia,  Asia, 

Africa  and  North  America 8,178,215 


72  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

• 

Chinese  Empire 4,553,102 

United  States 3,602,090 

Brazil 3,219,000 

Argentine  Bepublic 1,094,968 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 835,668 


30,120,983 
Total  surface  of  the  continents,  52,524,775  square 

miles. 

The  territory  occupied  by  seven  nations  is  far  more 

than  one-half  of  the  surface  of  all  the  continents. 
This  table  may  be  continued  in  order  of  size. 


Classification  by  Populations. 


INHABITANTS. 


Chinese  Empire 379,680,000 

British   Empire 299,308,2l»3 

Eussian  Empire 98,323,724 

United  States 50,442,066 

German  Empire ,  .  45,234,061 

Austro-Hungary 37,869,954 

France  .  37,058,485 


Total  population 947,916,583 

Population  of  all  the  continents,  1,433,888,111. 
The  population  of  five  empires  and  two  republics 


THE   WORLD   AS   A    WHOLE.  73 

is  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  population  of  all  the 
continents. 


Classification   of  Political   Divisions  Ac- 
cording to  Forms  of  Government. 

1.  Tribal  form.  3.    Limited  monarchies. 

2.  Absolute  monarchies.   4.     Republics. 

As  a  political  division  is  suggested  under  the  dif- 
ferent classifications,  draw  it;  then  if  the  student's 
concepts  of  the  continents  are  clear,  he  can  easily 
describe  the  structure  (highlands,  lowlands,  plains), 
the  drainage  (rivers  and  river  basins),  the  climate, 
soil,  vegetable  products,  minerals,  metals,  animal  life, 
and  races  of  men  of  each  political  division  as  he  draws 
it.  More  than  this,  he  can  understand  the  relation  of 
each  particular  division  to  the  continent,  to  the  oceans, 
and  to  the  world.  This  process  follows  the  pedagogical 
law  of  going  from  the  whole  to  the  part. 

Commerce  and   Manufactures. 

From  the  basis  already  acquired  the  commerce 
and  manufactures  of  the  whole  world  may  be  very 
easily  studied. 


74  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Great  ocean  routes  and  the  ports  connecting 
them. 

2.  Great  river  routes. 

3.  Great  railroads  of  the  world. 

4.  Great  commercial    cities;    their   exports  and 
imports. 

5.  Great  manufacturing    cities;    articles  manu- 
factured in  them.     (See  commercial  map,  Barnes'  Com- 
plete Geography,  p.  133.) 

These  questions  should  be  asked  of  each  country : 

What  are  the  principal  articles  it  furnishes  other 
countries,  i.  e.,  vegetable  and  mineral  products  and 
manufactured  articles  ? 

What  articles  does  it  receive  from  other  countries? 

Select  twenty  of  the  ports  (commercial  cities)  of 
the  world  and  ascertain  the  principal  exports  and  im- 
ports of  each  city. 

What  relation  do  the  structure,  climate,  soil  and 
minerals  have  to  do  with  the  wealth  of  each  city  ? 

What  great  cities  owe  their  wealth  to  neither  com- 
merce nor  manufactures  ? 

Special   Studies   of  Countries   of   Great 
Historical  Importance. 

1.  Palestine. 

2.  Basin  of  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

3.  Egypt. 


THE   WORLD    AS    A    WHOLE.  75 

4.  Greece.  9.  Great  Britain. 

5.  Italy.  10.  United  States. 

6.  Germany.  11.  India. 

7.  Spain.  12.  China. 

8.  Holland. 

In  order  to  understand  and  fix  in  the  mind  the 
great  events  of  history  these  countries  should  be  thor- 
oughly studied  in  this  order. 

1.  Eelations  to  continent. 

2.  Structure.  6.     Vegetable  products. 

3.  Drainage.  7.     Mineral. 

4.  Soil.  8.     Eaces  of  men. 

5.  Climate. 

9.  Advantages  in  structure   for  defense  against 
enemies. 

10.  Commercial  situation. 

11.  Advantages  for  manufactures. 

12.  Influences  of  the  above  upon  the  character 
of  the  inhabitants. 


OUTLINE  OF  A  COUESE  OF  STUDY, 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 


FIRST   GRADE. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Color.  d  Distance. 

b  Form.  e  Direction. 

c  Number. 

f  Location  of  everything  in  stories  told  or 
read. 

g  Observations  of  changes  in  seasons,  rain, 
snow,  clouds,  ice,  frost,  effects  of  moisture  upon 
plant  life. 

h  Plants,  seeds  sown  in  room,  in  garden; 
trees. 

76 


OUTLINE  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.     77 

i  Animals;  what  they  eat;  kinds  of;  uses; 
domestic  animals ;  wild  animals. 

j  Fairy  tales  illustrated  by  pictures. 

SECOND  TERM— 

Continue  first  term  work. 

a  Observations  of  boiling  water. 

b  Steam,  vapor. 

c  Forms  of  water. 

THIRD  TERM — 

Continue  previous  work. 

a  Sunlight,  changes  in  room. 

b  Rising  and  setting  of  sun. 

c  Moon  and  stars. 

d  Effects  of  heat  and  cold. 

e  Movements  of  air;  winds. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Continue  all  previous  observations  throughout 
the  year. 

FIRST  TERM- 

a  Areas. 

b  Location  of  rooms  in  school-house. 

c  Location  of  school-house,  location  of  yard, 
of  streets  and  houses  in  the  vicinity. 


78  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

SECOND  TERM — 

a  Horizon,  sky,  zenith;  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal lines. 

b  Observation  of  natural  features  of  land; 
hills,  valleys,  rivers,  ponds,  etc. 

c  How  plants  grow. 

THIRD  TERM — 

a  Illustrate  stories  read  or  told,  by  pictures 
and  maps  drawn  upon  the  blackboard. 

b  Migration  of  birds. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Continue  all  work  indicated  in  first  and 
second  grades  throughout  the  year. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Locate  all  places  mentioned  in  history  of 
the  Eskimos. 

b  Observation  of  soils;  gravel,  sand,  loam, 
rocks. 

c  Observation  of  common  minerals  and  met- 
als. 

d  Consider  effects  of  heat,  cold,  air,  water, 
soil  and  plant  life  upon  each  other. 

e  Study  features  of  surface  structure  in  re- 
lation to  heat,  cold,  moisture,  air,  etc. 


OUTLINE;  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.        79 

SECOND  TERM — 

a  Relation  of  clouds,  vapor,  light  and  heat, 
to  rain,  and  rain  to  plant  life. 

b  Locate  places  in  history. 

THIRD  TERM — 

Review  all  previous  work. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Collect  carefully  the  results  of  all  previous 
observations  and  study.  Lead  pnpils  to  see  the 
relations  of  the  facts  they  have  acquired. 

b  Systematic  study  of  all  forms  of  land  and 
water. 

c  Hills. 

d  Ridges,  chains  of  hills. 

e  Stories  of  mountains  and  mountain  sys- 
tems. 

f  Valleys,  plains,  lowlands. 

g  Stories  of  prairies,  steppes,  selvas,  llanos, 
etc. 

SECOND  TERM — 
a  Drainage. 

b  Percolation  of  water  through  the  soil. 
c  Use  of  the  water  in  the   soil ;  vegetation. 


So  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

d  Springs,  brooks,  rivers. 
e  Ponds,  lakes,  swarnps. 
f  Stories  of  snow   on   mountains,  glaciers, 
icebergs. 

g  Wells,  artesian  wells,  canals  and  ditches. 

THIRD  TERM — 

a  River  basin ;  bring  all  the  results  of  ob- 
servation to  bear  upon  this  unit  of  drainage. 

b  Coast  lines.  e  Peninsulas. 

c  Promontories.  f  Islands. 

d  Capes.  g  Gulfs,  bays,  seas. 

h  Wearing  coasts,  building  coasts,  tides  of 
the  ocean. 

i  Stories,  descriptions  and  illustrations  of 
these  forms  which  lie  outside  of  the  pupil's  ob- 
servation. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 


SCIENTIFIC   GEOGRAPHY. 


Bring  together  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  re- 
sults of  all  previous  observations  and  studies. 

Use  these  results  or  this  acquired  power  at 
every  step  of  the  building  or  the  imaging  of  the 


OUTLINE  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.     8 1 

continents.     If  the  proper  preparation  for  scien- 
tific geography  has  not  been  made,  make  it. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Review  all  previous  work  and  strengthen 
all  the  weak  places. 

b  Structure  of  North  America.  Concen- 
trate all  work  upon  structure. 

c  Drainage.  g  Vegetation. 

d  River  basins.  h  Animals. 

e  Soil.  i  Races  of  men. 

/  Climate. 

j  A  general  view  of  political  divisions. 

k  Comparison  of  slope  with  slope,  basin 
with  basin. 

SECOND  TERM — 

Same  as  first  term. 

THIRD  TERM— 

a  Structure  of  South  America. 
b  Drainage.  e  Climate. 

c  River  basins.  f  Vegetation. 

d  Soil.  g  Races  of  men. 

h  Animals. 

i  General  view  of  political  divisions. 
j  Comparison  with  North  America. 


82  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Structure  of  Eurasia.  Follow  the  same 
course  as  in  North  America  and  South  America. 

b  Structure  of  Europe. 

c  Structure  of  Asia. 

* 

d  Compare  Europe  with  Asia. 
e  Compare  Eurasia  with  North  America. 
f  Compare  Eurasia  with  South  America. 
g  Compare  with  North  and  South  America 
taken  together. 

SECOND  TERM — 

a  Structure  of  Africa.  Follow  the  same 
course  as  in  North  America  and  South  America. 

b  Compare  with  each  of  the  continents  al- 
ready taught. 

c  Australasia,  structure  of. 

d  Australia,  structure  of. 

e  Compare  Australia  with  the  structure  of 
each  of  the  continents. 

THIRD  TERM — 

a  The  earth  as  a  sphere. 

b  Locate  all  the  continents  upon  the  globe. 

c  Locate  the  islands,  oceanic  and  continental. 

d  The  oceans. 

e  Relations  of  oceans  to  continents. 

/  Ocean  currents. 


OUTLINE  OF  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY.        83 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Distribution  of  heat. 

b  Motions  of  the  earth. 

c  Distribution  of  heat  by  zones ;  elevations ; 
winds  and  ocean  currents. 

d  Distribution  of  moisture. 

e  Winds. 

SECOND  TERM — 

a  Distribution  of  soils. 

b  Distribution  of  vegetation  and  vegetable 
products. 

c  Distribution  of  animals. 

THIRD  TERM — 

a  Distribution  of  men. 

b  Races  of  men. 

c  Distribution  of  minerals  and  metals. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

FIRST  TERM — 

a  Governments. 

b  Conditions  of  governments. 

c  Forms  of  governments. 

d  Tribal  forms. 

e  Absolute  monarchies. 

f  Limited  monarches. 


84  HOW    TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

g  Republics. 

h  Distribution  of  political  divisions  over  the 
earth. 

i  Capitals  and  principal  cities. 

SECOND  TERM — 

a  Structure,  soil,  climate,  vegetable  products, 
manufacturing  and  commercial  advantages  of 
each  political  division. 

b  Manufactures  of  the  world. 

c  Commerce  of  the  world. 

d  Great  cities  of  the  world. 

What  made  them  great? 

THIRD  TERM — 

a  Special  structures  of  very  important  polit- 
ical divisions  (important  in  the  history  of  the 
past  and  present). 

b  Persia  and  Syria. 

c  Palestine.  h  France. 

d  Egypt.  i  Great  Britain. 

e  Greece.  j  Germany. 

/  Italy.  k  Holland. 

g  Spain.  /  United  States. 

NOTE. — Political  geography  is  historical  geography, 
and  is  taught  in  connection  with  history ;  (see  Course 
in  History,  to  be  prepared  for  the  Cook  County  Normal 
School). 


SUGGRSTIONS    AND    DIRRG- 
TIOJMS. 


1.  This  outline  of  a  course  of  study  is  an  attempt 
to  adapt  the  subjects,  by  grades  and  terms,  to  the  dif- 
ferent stages   of  development  or  power  to  grasp  and 
comprehend  thought.     If,   however,   in  any  grade    or 
term  the  work  up  to  the  time  has  not  been  done — if 
pupils  have  not  the  power  to  go  on — then  the  previous 
work  must  be  done.     The  rule  is  begin  where  you  find  the 
pupil. 

2.  One  direction  stands  above  all  others  in  im- 
portance ;  it  is  the  formation  of  the  habit,  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils,  of  locating  everyplace,  natural  feature,  and 
country,  mentioned   in  reading   and   study.     This    habit 
should  be  sedulously  cultivated  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end.      In  the   fairy  and   other    stories    of    the    lower 
grades,   illustrate  by  pictures   drawn  upon   the  black- 
board ;  make  little  sketch  maps  of  the  places.     Follow 
in  a  little  map  the  travels  of    "Bed  Biding  Hood,"  of 
"Silverhair"  and  "The  Three  Bears."   Draw  maps,  and 
have  pupils   do  the  same,  of  any  place  or  country  de- 
scribed in  reading.     Not  only  draw  the  maps,  but  try 

85 


86  HOW   TO  STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

to  lead  pupils  to  imagine  the  surrounding  features.  In 
class  reading  and  study  have  a  map  upon  the  board  or 
draw  one,  and  locate  each  place.  When  studying  at 
their  desks  pupils  may  locate  by  using  maps  in  the 
text  book. 

3.  In  teaching  history,  geography  should  be  used 
at  every  step.  Before  a  single  fact  is  taught,  the  struc- 
tural geography  of  the  country  whose  history  is  to  be 
learned  should  be  thoroughly  comprehended.  The 
drainage,  climate,  vegetation,  animal  life,  races  of  men 
and  all  other  influences  that  bear  upon  civilization 
should  be  related  to  the  structure  in  one  great,  distinct 
picture,  so  that  the  social,  religious  and  political  acts 
of  men  shall  pass  under  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  upon  a 
real  stage,  a  stage  made  up  of  hills,  mountains,  plains, 
coasts,  rivers  and  valleys,  upon  which  the  characters  of 
history  "live  and  move  and  have  their  being. "  Events 
are  thus  permanently  fixed  in  the  philosophical  memory 
with  the  particular  stage  upon  which  they  were  enacted. 
In  addition  to  this  indispensable  means  of  cultivating 
the  philosophical  memory,  the  association  of  events  with 
structure,  climate,  etc.,  leads  directly  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  causes,  the  essential  basis  of  the  philosophy  of 
history. 

Have  the  molding  board  always  ready  to  make 
vivid  the  places  and  their  environment.  Keep  a  large 
outline  map  upon  the  board  upon  which  to  mark  the 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  87 

places,  draw  new  political  boundaries,  or  to  change 
old  boundaries.  How  does  this  place  or  country  look? 
What  are  its  relations  to  the  whole  continent  ?  should 
be  continual  questions.  For  instance,  in  teaching  the 
history  of  the  United  States,  review  first  the  continent 
of  North  America ;  lead  pupils  to  see  how  it  looked  be- 
fore its  discovery.  Then  as  the  discoveries  are  made, 
follow  the  footsteps  of  the  discoverers ;  as  the  settlers 
arrive  and  colonize  the  country,  mark  off  boundaries 
until  the  thirteen  colonies  with  all  the  land  which  be- 
longed to  them  are  outlined ;  indicate  the  foundation  of 
each  new  city.  Then  follow  closely,  in  geography,  the 
evolution  of  the  states.  In  ancient  history,  the  same 
thorough  work  should  be  done ;  Mesopotamia,  Pales- 
tine, Egypt,  Greece,  Italy  should  have  clear,  correspond- 
ing pictures  in  the  minds  of  pupils.  Nothing  should  be 
left  in  the  air ;  Athens,  Sparta,  Home,  in  their  essen- 
tial features,  can  be  as  familiar  to  the  pupils  as  the 
streets  of  their  native  town.  - 

The  structure,  climate  and  vegetation  have  very 
much  to  do  with  the  civilization  and  progress  of  a  peo- 
ple. Keep  these  facts  in  mind.  Keep  constantly  before 
you  that  the  memory  of  events  must  have  its  philo- 
sophic basis  founded  upon  a  clear  concept  of  the  terri- 
tory upon  which  the  events  occurred. 

4.  Curiosity  is  the  strongest  intellectual  tendency ; 
keeping  it  fully  alive  in  the  right  directions,  means  intel- 


88  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

lectual  growth.  The  child  is  very  curious  in  regard 
to  the  beyond.  If  his  mind  is  in  a  normal  condition  he 
is  always  interrogating  nature.  This  important  fact  the 
teacher  should  always  keep  in  mind  and  use  for  the 
benefit  of  her  pupils.  The  little  one,  out  of  a  meager 
stock  of  ideas,  creates  a  world  for  itself.  Myths 
and  fairy  tales  are  the  child's  true  mental  pabulum, 
as  they  were  of  the  childhood  of  the  world ;  they  burst 
the  bonds  of  a  limited  reality  and  give  children  the  first 
elements  of  faith,  of  spiritual  life. 

Keep  this  sacred  fire  of  curiosity  alive  in  the  child's 
soul;  myth  and  fairy  tale  are  the  nebulae  of  reality. 
Tell  a  little  child  that  the  earth  is  "round,  and  like  a 
ball  seems  swinging  in  the  air.  "  It  is  nothing  to  him 
except  a  thing  of  wonder ;  long  years  of  study  must 
elapse  before  the  world  becomes  really  round  to  him ; 
but  the  story,  more  a  myth  than  "Jack  and  the  Bean 
Stalk,"  arouses  curiosity;  it  is  a  spark  that  may  kindle 
into  a  flame,  if  the  teacher  has  the  good  sense  to  do 
nothing  more  than  tell  the  wonderful  story.  Tell  the 
child  of  the  great  world  beyond;  of  mountains  with 
snowy  heights;  of  valleys,  rivers,  and  oceans;  the 
vague  ideas  aroused  will  excite  a  burning  curiosity 
which  furnishes  the  stimulus  under  proper  direction 
for  careful  and  thorough  investigation  and  research. 
The  fruitless  attempt  to  teach  any  generalization 
before  the  facts,  out  of  which  the  generalization  is  in- 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   DIRECTIONS.  89 

duced,  are  in  the   mind,  has  for  its  product  a  lasting 
disgust  for  the  subject  taught. 

All  through  the  course,  that  which  is  to  be  made 
real  to  pupils,  should  have  forerunners  in  stories  and 
travels.  Miss  Jane  Andrew's  wonderful  books  should 
be  read  by  children  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades — 
"Seven  Little  Sisters,"  "Each  and  All;"  and  in  the 
seventh  grade — "Ten  Boys  of  Long  Ago."  "Aunt  Mar- 
tha's Corner  Cupboard,"  is  an  excellent  book  of  the 
same  kind. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  although  this 
kind  of  reading  arouses  curiosity  and  stimulates  to  study, 
it  cannot  be  called,  strictly  speaking,  scientific  study. 
Stories  and  travels  are  not  in  themselves  elements  in 
scientific  geography,  but  simply  incidents  which  serve  to 
spur  the  mind  on  to  search  for  the  truths  which  they 
shadow  forth. 

Curiosity,  like  all  fundamental,  innate  tendencies, 
must  be  led  by  the  most  careful  teaching.  A  precept, 
to  the  child  may  be  a  falsehood,  while  a  beautiful  fairy 
tale  may  contain  a  rich  kernel  of  truth.  But  unless 
the  truth  imbedded  in  myth  or  fairy  tale  be  developed 
into  reality,  it  may  lead  to  unreasoning  belief  or  the 
wildest  fanaticism.  In  mental  evolution  there  comes  a 
time  when  the  child  will  merge  this  love  for  myth  into 
a  broader  love  for  reality ;  the  old  will  blend  with  the 
new ;  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  teacher 


90  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

watch  carefully  this  gradual  change  and  apply  the  new 
conditions  at  every  stage  of  the  new  growth. 

Undirected  curiosity,  unrestrained  love  for  fairy 
tales,  myths,  and  travels,  will  develop  little  of  worth. 
The  teacher  with  a  mind  full  of  the  great  ideal,  the 
mental  in-building  of  a  concept  of  this  great  earth,  must 
by  careful  teaching  change  this  vagueness,  this  mental 
nebulae,  into  the  grand  reality.  The  fairy  tale  is  truth 
to  the  child,  the  real,  round  world  should  be  truth  to  the 
man. 

5.    The  power  to   understand  a   map   correctly 

is  of  indispensable  importance  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy. It  may  be  truthfully  said  that  the  main 
end  and  aim  of  teaching  geography  is  the  power  to 
interpret  maps.  A  map  is  a  picture  and  something 
less  than  a  picture ;  it  is  much  more  than  a  symbol 
or  a  set  of  symbols.  Its  primary  use  is  to  build  in  the 
mind  an  individual  concept  corresponding  to  the  struc- 
ture (relief)  of  a  country ;  its  secondary  use  is  to  fill 
into  this  individual  concept  the  subordinate  (and  asso- 
ciated) concepts  of  drainage,  soil,  climate,  vegetation, 
animals,  races  of  men,  places,  political  boundaries,  in 
fact  all  the  essential  facts  pertaining  to  the  country. 
The  end  to  be  attained  is  that  the  map  shall  recall  a 
great  vivid  picture  or  assemblage  of  blended  concepts. 
A  map  should  live  and  glow  with  life  and  movement. 
Like  words  and  pictures,  a  map  is  an  external 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  91 

means  of  recalling  an  appropriate  concept,  a  concept 
that  corresponds  (approximately)  to  a  real  country,  a 
real  continent,  a  real  world.  The  true  psychological 
effect  of  a  map  is:  1st,  the  external  object  (the  map) ; 
2nd,  a  concept  (aroused  by  the  map)  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  map ;  3rd,  the  corresponding  concept  recall- 
ing the  appropriate  concept,  the  concept  correspond- 
ing to  the  country.  Now  the  very  common  effect — an 
effect  almost  universal — is  that  the  map  recalls  nothing 
but  its  corresponding  concept  (the  map  itself) ;  it 
awakens  in  consciousness  nothing  beyond  itself,  no 
gleam  of  light,  color,  or  shade,  beyond  the  mere  cor- 
respondence to  itself.  The  pupil  thinks  of  the  map, 
in  the  map,  and  is  limited  in  thought  entirely  to  its 
narrow  boundaries,  its  patches  of  colored  paper.  This 
constrains  and  confines  mental  action  and  induces  a 
habit  that  long,  earnest  mental  struggles  may,  and,  alas, 
may  not  break  up.  Test  yourself.  Do  you  see  the  map 
alone,  or  the  country  represented  by  the  map  ?  This 
terrible  habit — terrible  in  its  results  upon  human  intel- 
ligence— is  early  formed  by  presenting  incomprehensible 
maps  to  children  and  forcing  them  to  commit  to  memory 
the  black  lines  of  river  and  coast,  the  little  dots  for 
places,  and  the  colored  lines  of  political  boundaries; 
under  such  teaching  this  habit  is  inevitable,  and  a  map 
instead  of  performing  its  proper  function  in  recollection, 
instead  of  calling  into  consciousness  a  beautiful  picture 


92  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

glowing  with  variegated  life  in  a  unit  of  form ;  instead, 
in  a  word,  of  enlarging  the  mind's  scope  and  quickening 
the  power  of  imagination,  restrains  and  confines  the 
thought  to  a  meaningless  muddle  of  color  and  form. 

The  faults  of  map-teaching  are  identical  with  the 
faults  of  word-teaching.  Teaching  words  before  ideas 
has  the  same  effect  as  teaching  a  map  without  associa- 
ting it  with  that  which  it  represents.  The  problem 
of  how  to  lead  children  to  use  maps  properly,  that  is, 
to  make  a  map  a  means  of  developing  thought  power, 
is  an  exceedingly  serious  and  important  one,  in  fact  it 
may  be  called  the  end  and  aim  of  teaching  geography ; 
therefore,  all  directions  and  suggestions  should  tend  to- 
ward this  one  purpose.  Some  general  rules  may  be 
here  given : 

I.  Begin  with  careful    observation    of    the  land 
around    the  school-house ;    hills,   valleys,    etc.      Have 
pupils  mold  and  draw  maps  of  the  natural  features  that 
they  observe. 

II.  Use  simple  maps,  embracing  very  few  features. 
A  map  for  teaching  is  entirely  different  from  a  map  for 
reference. 

III.  Train  pupils  into  the  habit  of  picturing  the 
country  the  map  represents.     Ask  questions  that  will 
lead  them  to  imagine  the  natural  features,  and  never  use 
a  map   so  complete  that  it  will  prevent  their  making 
mentally  vivid  the  reality. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  93 

IV.  For  primary  teaching  (in  third,  fourth  and  fifth 
grades)  never  use  anything  but  structural  maps. 

V.  Above  all,  have  the  structure  distinctly  in  your  own 
mind  before  you  attempt  to  teach  it.     Vagueness  on  the 
part   of    the    teacher    is  generally  the  main   fault    in 
teaching. 

VI.  A  map  recalls  the  reality  because  it  has  some 
attributes  which  correspond  in  themselves  and  in  their 
arrangement  to  the   attributes  and  arrangement  of  at- 
tributes in  the  country  the  map  represents.     The  closer 
the  correspondence  of  the  map  is  to  reality  the  more 
influence  it  has  in  recalling  the  reality.     A  map  (like 
the  maps  commonly  used)  which  contains  no  mark  or 
sign  of  elevation,  teaches  horizontal  outlines  and  noth- 
ing more.     A  physical  or  structural  map  recalls  eleva- 
tions and  other  surface  features. 

Teaching  the  surface  of  a  country  is  impossible  with- 
out the  means  of  indicating  the  natural  features  of  that 
country.  You  teach  flat  maps  and  call  it  geography, 
but  it  is  simply  a  surface  of  colored  paper  and  nothing 
more.  "Geography  is  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth."  How  can  the  surface  be  described  without  first 
mentally  picturing  the  surface,  and  how  can  one  con- 
ceive in  the  slightest  degree,  the  natural  surface  features 
without  the  means  of  such  mental  action;  and  what 
means  can  be  used  other  than  pictures,  models  and  de- 
scriptions of  vertical  sections?  Words  fail  without 


94  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

adequate  illustration.  The  pedagogical  demand  in 
method,  since  the  time  of  Humboldt  and  Eitter,  for 
teachers  of  geography,  has  been  how  to  teach  the  up- 
raised land  masses. 

6.  Relief  Maps.  One  device  has  been  used  for  a 
long  time  by  many  teachers,  and  that  is  the  illustration 
of  elevations  by  models  or  reliefs.  Many  teachers, 
however,  argue  against  the  use  of  relief,  claiming  that 
altitudes,  in  comparison  with  horizontal  distances,  are 
very  much  exaggerated;  that  heights  are  out  of  pro- 
portion with  lengths,  lateral  and  transverse.  This 
statement  is  true,  and  it  is  also  true  that  maps 
with  relatively  exact  proportions  cannot  be  made  for 
school-room  use,  and  if  they  could  they  would  be  of 
little  or  no  use  in  teaching  geography,  as  the  highest 
elevation  would  nearly  coincide  with  the  plane  of  the 
ocean  level.  The  questions  to  be  decided  are ;  can  relief 
maps  be  used  so  as  to  give  pupils  the  general  truths  of 
the  continental  organism?  Is  the  necessary  exag- 
geration above  mentioned  an  insuperable  objection? 

Like  all  other  pedagogical  questions,  this  question 
must  be  discussed  and  decided  upon  purely  psycho- 
logical grounds.  If  with  the  known  defects,  relief  maps 
aid  the  mind  in  the  formation  of  relatively  true  con- 
cepts, then  they  should  be  used ;  if  not,  they  should  be 
discarded. 

The   use  of    relief  maps,  and   of  molding   maps  in 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  95 

sand,  clay  and  putty  involves  other  devices  for  teaching 
elevations ;  for  instance,  profiles  of  vertical  sections  have 
been  used  ever  since  any  attempt  to  teach  scientific 
geography  has  been  made.  Guyot  used  them  extensively, 
and  all  physical  geographies  illustrate  elevations  and 
slopes  by  them;  in  topographical  surveys  the  same 
illustrations  are  used.  Profiles  are  exaggerations  of 
heights  in  relation  to  horizontal  distances  in  precisely 
the  same  way  that  relief  maps  are  exaggerations.  Pho- 
tographs or  pictures  of  relief  maps  (now  used  exten- 
sively in  common  school  geographies)  and  bird's  eye 
views  are  also  untrue  in  the  relations  of  heights  to 
breadths  and  lengths.  So  that  profiles  and  pictures  of 
reliefs,  in  fact,  all  graphic  representations  of  elevations 
or  vertical  sections,  being  open  to  the  same  objections 
as  relief  maps,  must  be  given  up  in  teaching,  if  sound 
reasoning  sustains  the  objection  in  regard  to  exaggerated 
heights. 

I.  Structural  geography,  or  geography  per  se,  is 
the  in-formation  (mental  in-building)  of  concepts  cor- 
responding to  the   structure   of    continents.     Without 
the  concept   of  structure,  elevations,  slopes,  and  their 
relations,  true  geography  is  a  perfect  impossibility,  for 
geography  minus  structure  is  a  plane  or  flat  surface — 
an  unmixed  untruth. 

II.  The  process  of  this  in-formation  or  in- building  of 
concepts  corresponding  to  continental  structures  is  by 


96  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

apperception.  Apperception  is  the  strengthening,  blend- 
ing, commingling,  and  combining  of  elementary  ideas  and 
concepts  which  have  been  formed  in  the  mind  by  actual 
observation  or  direct  sense-contact.  External  objects — 
hills,  valleys,  etc.,  cause  mental  pictures,  which  by  ap- 
perception are  reformed  in  wholes  (concepts)  of  objects 
which  lie  entirely  beyond  the  sense-grasp.  All  mental 
creatures  of  fancy  or  reality  are  thus  m-formed.  The 
main  purpose  in  teaching  scientific  geography  is  so  to 
blend,  commingle,  strengthen,  and  combine  the  products 
of  the  senses  that  the  objective  product  will  be  a  concept 
which  corresponds,  in  general  elements,  to  the  general 
features  of  the  continent.  The  problem  of  sense-con- 
tact or  actual  observation  is  (in  theory)  easily  solved, 
but  the  means  to  be  used  in  building  the  concepts, 
whose  corresponding  objects  are  entirely  beyond  sense- 
grasp,  is  far  more  difficult. 

III.  It  is  evident  that  graphic  and  symbolic  devices 
must  be  used  to  create  the  much-to-be-desired  concept. 
As  actual  correspondence  in  form  and  structure  is  out 
of  the  question,  the  most  essential  external  means  is  that 
graphic  device  which  has  in  itself  the  most  attributes 
and  relation  of  attributes  that  correspond  to  the  actual 
but  unseen  form.  A  flat  political  map  has  the  fewest 
possible  corresponding  attributes;  its  correspondence 
consists  entirely  of  indications  of  horizontal  forms ;  it 
contains  absolutely  no  correspondence  in  elevation. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  97 

Lines  indicating  coast  lines  and  rivers  make  up  the 
entire  correspondence  in  structure.  Mountains  which 
are  the  summits  of  slopes,  it  is  true,  are  indicated,  but 
by  marks  which  have  little  or  no  correspondence  with 
the  actual  elevations  or  forms  of  elevations. 

Physical  or  structural  maps  are  filled  with  graphic 
illustrations  of  upraised  structure,  but  the  mental 
power  to  interpret  the  signs  in  physical  maps  is  the  end 
of  geographical  teaching,  and  is  far  removed  from  the 
initial  steps.  The  multifarious  symbols  that  make  up 
a  physical  map  are  to  the  beginner  in  a  grammar  grade 
a  confused  mass  of  unmeaning  hieroglyphics,  and  to  pre- 
sent such  a  map  to  a  grammar  pupil  is  to  begin  with 
a  full  and  rounded  generalization,  a  direct  violation 
of  the  principles  of  induction. 

IV.  Oral  and  printed  descriptions  of  surface  are 
indispensable  in  the  formation  of  clear  concepts,  but 
are  they  an  adequate  means  in  the  full  building  of  the 
proper  concepts  ? 

Vivid  and  accurate  descriptions  are  much  more 
effective  than  either  flat  political  or  physical  maps,  but 
it  is  evident  there  must  be  some  graphic  illustration. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  simple  structural  maps  may 
be  used  with  great  effect ;  yet  when  an  illustration  of  a 
slope  like  that  stretching  westward  from  the  Mississippi 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  also  an  illustration  to 
show  the  relation  of  that  slope  to  the  mountains  which 


98  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

crown  it,  nothing  is  more  natural  for  a  teacher  than  to 
step  to  a  blackboard  and  draw  an  inclined  line  indica- 
tive of  the  slope.  This  line  is  untrue,  say  the  objectors, 
because  it  fails  to  show  relative  height.  How,  then,  can 
it  be  shown  ? 

V.  The  flat  copy  political  map  contains  very  little 
truth  and  that  is  confined  entirely  to  horizontal  form. 

Physical  maps  cannot  be  understood  until  they 
are  associated  with  the  reality.  Descriptions  fail  to 
create  the  proper  concepts. 

Belief  maps,  profiles  and  pictures  of  relief  maps  contain 
a  great  deal  more  truth  to  the  young  learner  than  all  other 
means  combined.  The  slopes,  mountain  systems,  hills, 
valleys,  river  basins,  in  fact  the  general  organism  is 
the  truth  from  which  the  life,  the  drainage,  facts  of 
climate,  soil,  production  and  history  may  be  educed  and 
understood.  The  choice  then  seems  to  lie  between  lit- 
tle or -no  truth,  and  very  much  truth  with  an  element  of 
error.  It  is  a  question  of  geography  or  little  or  no 
geography. 

VI.  Judgment  is  the  modifying  interpreting  faculty 
of  the  mind.     Through  this  power  acting  upon  sense 
products  the  correspondence  between  the  internal  and 


NOTE.— The  representations  of  outlines  or  coast  lines  contain  very  much 
that  is  decidedly  untrue;  for  instance,  the  entire  coast  line  of  the  Arctic  ocean 
has  never  been  topographically  surveyed,  and  its  representation  in  maps  is 
mere  guess  work  from  casual  observations.  The  same  can  be  said  of  many 
rivers,  lakes  and  mountains. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  99 

external  is  made  true.  The  moon  (in  unformed  judg- 
ment) touches  the  eyes  of  the  little  child;  judgment 
acting  on  facts .  of  experience  removes  it  farther  and 
farther  away.  A  house  a  short  distance  away  is  to  the 
senses  one  inch  high,  to  the  judgment  (acquired  per- 
ception) it  may  be  fifty  feet  high.  By  precisely  the 
same  mental  power  the  inequalities  of  heights  and 
horizontal  distances  by  a  strictly  natural  process  will 
be  changed  to  the  reality. 

Belief  maps  have  been  in  use  for  a  long  time; 
they  are  recommended  by  many  eminent  teachers  of 
geography.  Geike,  who  is  a  great  authority  in  the  Eng- 
lish speaking  world,  strongly  recommends  the  molding 
of  relief  maps  in  teaching  primary  geography.  It  may 
be  safely  questioned  whether  classes  which  do  not  use 
this  seemingly  indispensable  means  really  learn  struc- 
tural geography.  This  suspicion  is  enhanced  by  the 
results  of  the  examination  of  many  graduates  of  high 
schools,  who  do  not  seem  to  have  learned  anything  be- 
yond the  mere  picture  of  a  map. 

7.  Drawing,  next  to  molding,  is  the  most  efficient 
means  of  studying  geography.  It  goes,  however,  with- 
out saying,  that  both  molding  and  drawing  may  be  con- 
tinually used,  and  used  with  the  highest  degree  of 
technical  skill,  and  still  no  essential  geography  be 
learned.  That  molding  or  drawing  which  simply  re- 
produces the  form  of  a  map  without  enhancing  the  con- 


100  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

cepts  of  surface  structure  is  of  no  use  whatever ;  it  is 
worse  than  useless,  for  it  blinds  the  pupil,  and  hinders 
him  from  a  knowledge  of  the  reality.  The  only  use  of 
molding  and  drawing  is  to  build  in  the  mind  a  picture  or  con- 
cept of  a  country  or  continent.  At  all  times  in  drawing 
and  molding,  pupils  should  be  led  to  think  or  to  picture 
the  country.  While  a  coast  line  is  being  drawn,  the 
kind  of  coast  should  be  mentally  seen ;  whether  it  is  a 
wearing  or  a  building  coast ;  why  the  coast  has  this  or 
that  form ;  the  mountains,  hills,  cliffs  or  plains  that 
form  the  coast ;  the  kind  of  harbors ;  the  uses  of  the 
bays  and  other  indentations  ;  why  such  and  such  a  pen- 
insula, cape  or  promontory  is  where  it  is  ;  in  fact  the  coast 
should  be  full  of  reality,  the  pictures  should  be  clear 
and  even  vivid.  The  same  can  be  said  of  all  drawing 
and  molding ;  rivers  should  be  followed  in  their  courses, 
the  causes  of  the  river,  its  slopes,  basin,  channel,  bend- 
ings,  rapidity  of  flow,  depth,  effects  of  erosion,  uses  in 
manufactures,  navigation  and  irrigation;  mountains 
with  their  snowy  heights,  glaciers,  passes,  ravines,  pla- 
teaus should  spring  from  the  moving  crayon  or  pencil. 
Question  should  follow  question ;  questions  which  inter- 
fere with  accuracy  even  can  be  made  to  materially  aid 
in  forming  distinct  pictures. 

The  question  whether  construction  lines  should  be 
used  in  drawing  is  a  serious  one.  Certainly  a  better 
map  may  be  drawn  with  construction  lines ;  but,  does 
'he  pupil  gain  as  much  from  the  drawing  of  a  map  on 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  J        '  IOI 

such  lines  as  he  would  if  obliged  to  trust  his  mental 
picture  alone  and  to  represent  that  ?  The  map  itself 
will  generally  be  more  imperfect  without  construction 
lines,  but  the  mental  result  will  be  far  better,  and  the 
mental  is  the  one  purpose  of  the  work. 

In  the  end  it  may  also  be  safely  said  that  the  skill 
in  drawing  will  be  much  greater  because  of  the  con- 
stant reliance  upon  mental  pictures  unhindered  by  the 
use  of  construction  crutches.  Tine  only  safe  rule  to  fol- 
low, always  and  always,  is  to  consider  the  mental  power 
as  the  one  thing  to  be  gained  and  to  bend  every  means  stoutly 
and  persistently  toward  this  end.  The  teacher's  fear  of 
crudeness  and  marked  imperfections  in  expression,  on 
the  part  of  the  child,  very  often  robs  him  (the  child)  of 
much  true  development.  Pupils  should  draw  a  great 
deal;  the  direction  "draw  that"  should  be  given  at 
every  step.  Great  skill  in  draiving  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  exercises  an  immense  influence  for  good  over 
the  advancement  and  mental  growth  of  pupils.  No 
one  who  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  Agassiz 
and  Morse  teach  can  ever  forget  the  power  that  they 
exercised  by  their  marvelous  skill  in  delineating  and 
illustrating  their  lessons.  Drawing  is  a  second  right 
arm  and  every  teacher  is  morally  bound  to  acquire  skill 
in  the  art.  Draw,  however,  no  matter  how  poorly  you 
may  do  it — draw,  and  keep  on  drawing. 

8.  In  the  art  of  questioning  is  concentrated  the 
art  of  teaching.  The  art  of  teaching  has  just  one  mo- 


HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

tive, — the  arousing  and  exciting  of  those  conscious 
activities  which,  in  all  steps  and  stages  of  mental  ac- 
tion, conform  to  all-sided  growth.  A  pedagogical  ques- 
tion brings  about  a  certain  definite  conscious  activity, 
an  activity  directly  needed  for  the  development  of  men- 
tal power.  It  stimulates  and  intensifies  thought  by  re- 
calling and  concentrating  concepts,  judgments  and 
trains  of  reasoning.  It  leads  to  the  discovery  and 
evolution  of  new  judgments  or  inferences  out  of  the 
thought  already  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  In  synthet- 
izing,  analyzing,  comparing  and  judging,  mental  power 
is  more  economically  exercised  by  questioning  than  it  is 
by  any  other  means.  A  true  question  leads  and  stimu- 
lates a  search  for  truth.  No  matter  how  great  the 
difficulty,  if  the  truth  is  within  the  possible  grasp  of 
the  pupil,  the  search  and  the  finding  will  always  bring 
to  the  pupil  the  keenest  emotions  of  pleasure.  A  ques- 
tion, according  to  Jacotot,  "starts  a  quarry  for  the  class 
to  hunt  down."  Each  question  should  arouse  the 
thought  power,  not  of  one,  nor  a  few,  but  of  the  whole 
class.  It  should  demand,  in  the  highest  normal  degree, 
the  exercise  of  that  mental  activity  which  we  denomi- 
nate attention  or  concentration.  An  answer  should  be 
a  powerful  lens,  through  which  the  teacher  closely 
watches  every  movement  of  consciousness,  so  that  he 
can  detect  the  least  failure  and  encourage  the  slightest 
success.  A  succession  of  proper  questions  is  an  exam- 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  103 

ination  of  the  highest  order.  The  real  test  of  power  is 
found  in  not  merely  recalling  what  a  pupil  has  thought, 
but  in  using  the  old  to  discover  the  new. 

The  kind  and  intensity  of  the  conscious  activities 
(thinking)  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  should  always  govern 
the  questions ;  that  is,  the  order  of  questioning  should 
be  the  order  of  the  evolution  of  thought.  The  teacher, 
ever  on  the  alert,  and  watching  the  mental  acts  of  his 
pupils,  should  so  shape  his  questions  as  to  use  the 
mental  properties  and  powers  of  his  pupils  in  the  best 
possible  way.  Pupils  generally  possess  a  great  many 
isolated  facts  which  may  be  brought  together  and  related  by 
judicious  questioning.  Never  force  an  answer,  but 
be  sure  your  question  arouses  some  definite,  conscious 
activity,  then  give  pupils  time  to  think. 

The  great  art  of  questioning  may  be  entirely  mis- 
directed, like  all  other  good  things  in  teaching,  by  using 
it  as  a  means  of  verbally  memorizing  words.  A  ques- 
tion, too  often,  demands  an  answer,  not  a  thought ;  the 
pupil  is  aroused  to  mental  action  in  recalling  words  and 
sentences  already  learned,  or  in  framing  a  new  sentence 
which  he  suspects  is  required.  This  terrible  fault  lies 
wholly  in  the  teaching  and  not  in  the  pupils,  for  they 
dearly  love  to  think  when  they  have  a  chance ;  but  alas  ! 
the  habit  of  recalling  words  induced  and  fostered  by 
injudicious  teaching  takes  strong  hold  upon  them  and 
keeps  them  from  thinking  in  school,  at  least.  The  one 


104  H°W  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

serious  inquiry  teachers  should  make  at  each  step  of  a 
recitation  is :  Do  I  ask  this  question  for  the  thought  or 
for  the  answer  ?  The  difference  between  the  two  pur- 
poses is  world-wide.  One  presents  the  artist  teacher 
dealing  with  the  best  interests  of  the  child ;  the  other 
an  artisan  teacher  having  in  mind  the  personal  interests 
of  a  high  per  cent  upon  a  verbal  memory  examination. 
Questioning  in  structural  geography  is  the  simplest, 
easiest  and  most  delightful  of  all  questioning,  because 
proper  questions  bring  into  the  pupil's  mental  vision 
clear  and  pleasant  pictures  of  varying  and  variegated 
surfaces.  Each  picture,  beautiful  in  itself,  contains 
some  problem  of  cause  and  effect,  or  both,  to  be  solved 
by  investigation.  Where  does  the  rain  go  when  it  falls 
upon  the  ground  ?  How  far  into  the  ground  does  it  go  ? 
Where  does  it  stop  ?  Where  does  it  come  out  of  the 
ground  ?  What  good  does  it  do  in  the  ground  ?  How 
much  land  does  a  river  drain  ?  are  questions  that  re- 
quire the  presence  in  consciousness  of  clear  pictures,  by 
means  of  which  the  pupils  form  judgments  and  draw 
inferences.  The  thought-arousing  teacher  closely  watches 
the  mental  activities  of  his  pupils ;  he  instantly  grasps 
a  difficulty,  and,  if  necessary,  asks  another  question  to 
help  overcome  it ;  he  looks  upon  that  aid  which  lessens 
mental  activity  'in  the  right  direction  as  a  pedagogical 
crime ;  he  gives  credit  for  every  honest  attempt  to 
think ;  he  never  demands  any  set  form  in  an  answer ; 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  105 

he  delights  to  find  that  he  has  led  pupils  to  discover 
truths  that  he  never  had  himself.  To  a  teacher  who  is 
master  of  his  subject,  any  feature  of  land  or  water 
fairly  bristles  with  questions.  A  continent  is  a  precious 
mine  of  problems,  comparisons,  resemblances,  differ- 
ences, causes,  effects,  which  follow  each  other  in  his 
full  mind  in  rapid  succession.  This  oneness  of  motive 
— to  develop  power — and  this  plenitude  of  the  subject 
taught  begets  an  enthusiasm  in  teaching  unequaled  by 
that  of  any  other  art. 

It  cannot  be  urged,  here  and  elsewhere,  too  strongly 
and  too  persistently  that  the  teacher  should  master  his 
subject.  Perfunctory  questioning  from  a  text-book 
means  nothing  more  nor  less  than  ignorance  of  the 
subject.  Think  of  a  teacher  standing  before  a  beauti- 
ful landscape  asking  questions  about  that  landscape 
from  a  text-book ! 

The  study  of  geography  presents  countless  op- 
portunities for  the  cultivation  of  language,  both  oral 
and  written.  The  prime  function  of  all  modes  of  ex- 
pression in  mind  development  is  to  relate  and  intensify 
thought  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  will.  Each 
mode  of  expression  (language,  drawing,  making,  etc.) 
has  its  special  and  particular  office,  an  office  for  which 
no  other  mode  can  be  made  a  substitute.  Language  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  formation  of  judgment  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  reasoning  powers.  Judgment  is 


IO6  HOW   TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

cultivated,  it  is  true,  by  all  modes  of  expression ;  but  the 
direct  expression  of  judgment  is  confined  to  language. 
Oral  language  demands  quick,  intense  power;  written 
language  slower  and  more  deliberate  mental  action. 
Both  oral  and  written  language  demand  the  same  kind 
of  conscious  activity,  the  difference  is  only  in  degree  of 
intensity.  Under  the  more  deliberate  action  required  by 
written  language,  more  facts  are  generally  related,  and 
the  generalizations  springing  from  them  have  a  ten- 
dency to  come  nearer  to  the  truth.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  of  all  pedagogical  questions  is  this  one : 

Can  language  both  oral  and  written  be  molded, 
shaped  and  sufficiently  developed  in  all  its  details  of 
idioms,  pronunciation,  enunciation,  articulation,  pen- 
manship, spelling,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  accent, 
harmony,  melody,  etymology,  syntax  and  all  the  acci- 
dents of  grammatical  construction,  by  using  it  as  an 
immediate  means  of  thought  development? 

In  other  words,  can  language  be  adequately  devel- 
oped under  the  white  heat  of  thought  ?  Is  there  any  real 
necessity  for  the  using  a  sentence  either  oral  or  written 
which  does  not  directly  aid  in  developing  higher  power 
than  the  power  to  mechanically  use  the  accurate  forms  of 
language  itself  ?  The  highest  and  only  functions  of  lan- 
guage are  those  of  an  economic  means  of  thinking  and 
of  recalling  thought.  Can  these  functions  be  constantly 
used  at  every  step  and  stage  of  development,  or  must 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  107 

there  be  a  preparation  for  their  use  by  the  study  of 
language,  per  se,  as  an  isolated  and  detached  subject  ? 

If,  by  using  language,  under  scientific  teaching, 
both  oral  and  written,  in  its  proper  and  only  functions 
of  thought  development,  the  language  itself  can  be 
sufficiently  developed  in  beauty  and  power,  then  all 
cultivation  of  language  in  form  and  accuracy  may 
best  be  done  precisely  as  it  is  done,  and  has  been  done 
throughout  the  ages  in  the  learning  of  the  oral  lan- 
guage by  children  before  they  enter  school.  First,  the 
correct  model  or  pattern  for  imitation;  second,  the 
thought  and  a  desire  to  utter  it ;  third,  the  correction 
of  mistakes  by  the  parent  or  teacher  in  the  utter- 
ance. The  development  of  tlie  language  depends  entirely 
upon  the  development  of  the  thought.  Making  the  lan- 
guage (oral  and  written)  adequate  to  the  clear,  concise 
and  complete  expression  of  thought  must  be  a  product 
of  the  greatest  skill  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
If,  then,  these  modes  of  expression  can  be  made  an 
essential  and  immediate  means  of  arousing  and  stimu- 
lating those  conscious  activities  directly  conducive  to 
growth,  and  at  the  same  time  and  through  their  influ- 
ences language  may  be  adequately  developed,  it  is 
plain  that  a  very  large  amount  of  school  work  may  be 
dropped,  or  better,  may  assume  a  far  better  place  in 
the  economy  of  symmetrical  development. 

Instead  of    teaching   spelling,    penmanship,    Ian- 


I08  HOW   TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

guage  lessons  and  grammar  as  isolated  subjects,  taking 
so  much  time  and  toil,  they  would  become  essential 
accidents,  indispensable  and  economical  means  in  the 
direct  development  of  thought  power. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  teaching  of  words  and  the 
formal  arrangement  of  sentences  cultivates  thought 
power  and  is,  in  fact,  a  great  mental  discipline.  For 
want  of  better  subjects  of  discipline  this  claim  might 
be  allowed,  but  no  good  reasons  can  be  given  for  placing 
the  mental  power  acquired  in  mastering  geography,  his- 
tory, the  natural  sciences  and  mathematics  below,  or 
even  ivith  that  of  the  most  prolonged  study  of  the  forms 
of  thought  expression.  It  will  be  granted  that  all  the 
forms  of  language  (with  the  exception  of  unphonetic 
spelling)  are  essential  factors  in  the  evolutipn  of 
thought.  If,  then,  all  the  forms  and  details  of  lan- 
guage may  be  the  direct  and  immediate  means  of  inten- 
sifying and  compacting  conscious  activities,  and  by 
using  them  as  direct  means  the  language  in  itself,  in 
all  its  forms  and  details,  may  thus  be  best  acquired, 
why  take  the  time  from  the  main  subjects  to  exercise 
pupils  in  the  forms  of  thought  without  the  essential 
thinking  itself?  Does  not  the  use  of  language,  as  an 
immediate  demand  for  and  constant  stimulus  to  thought, 
raise  the  dignity,  influence  and  importance  of  language 
itself  to  a  far  higher  place  than  the  formal  study  of 
words  and  sentences  ? 


SUGGESTIONS.  AND   DIRECTIONS.  109 

It  will  be  granted,  too,  that  language  should  always 
be  genuine  and  sincere ;  it,  in  other  words,  should  con- 
form to  the  thought ;  it  should  spring  spontaneously 
from  the  conscious  activities ;  it  should  be  an  imme- 
diate necessity  for  thought  expression.  And  when  it 
thus  springs  from  the  mind  in  full  action,  from  the 
white  heat  of  thought,  it  seems  that  it  can  be  best  cor- 
rected, molded  and  enhanced  by  new  details  and  modi- 
fications which  at  the  same  time  mold,  modify  and  en- 
hance the  thought  itself. 

Several  very  practical  questions  must  be  answered 
in  support  of  this  theory : 

1.  Will  there  be  words  enough  used  in  pronuncia- 
tion,  spelling  and  penmanship  for  practical  use,  and 
will  there  be   sentences   enough  used  *for  training  in 
punctuation  and  the  use  of  capitals? 

2.  Will  there  be  sufficient  repetitions  of  these  forms 
to  fix  them  in  the  mind  ready  at  any  time  for  auto- 
matic use? 

3.  Will  the  legibility  and  ease  of  penmanship  be 
as  good  as  they  are  when  penmanship  is  taught  as  an 
art  by  itself? 

4.  Will    the  pupils    have  the    same  command    of 
idioms,   of  compound    and  complex  sentences  and  all 
the  modifications  that  "make  up  the  grammatical  analy- 
sis under  this  method  ? 

These  questions  can,  at  least,  be  partially  answered 
by  a  comprehensive  glance  at  the  work  to  be  done  or 


IIO  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  thought  to  be  evolved  in  teaching  the  great  science 
of  geography. 

Teaching  geography  as  it  should  be  taught  brings 
about  the  mental  evolution  of  a  great  logical  whole  of 
truth.  Each  fact,  detail  and  particular  becomes  an 
organic  element  in  the  organic  whole.  Products  of 
observation  form  the  essential  basis  of  the  upbuilding. 
The  order  of  growth  is  from  simple  observed  facts  to 
simple  generalizations ;  from  simple  generalizations  to 
analysis ;  from  grouped  and  related  generalizations  to 
higher  generalizations ;  from  effects  to  causes ;  from 
causes  to  effects.  The  whole  contains  in  logical  and 
related  order  each  fact  and  generalization;  the  last 
generalization  is  the  relation  and  outgrowth  of  all  pre- 
ceding generalizations. 

Oral  and  written  language  is  the  principal  external 
means  of  this  development.  The  evolution  of  the 
thought  demands  the  evolution  of  that  language  which 
conforms  to  the  thought,  and  is  adequate  to  its  expres- 
sion. Simple  facts  require  simple  sentences ;  general- 
izations, compound  and  complex  sentences ;  in  fact 
there  is  no  modification  to  be  found  in  the  closest  and 
most  minute  grammatical  or  logical  analysis  in  which 
pupils  would  not  be  fully  exercised  both  in  writing  and 
speaking  if  the  teaching  is  scientific,  or  in  other  words, 
properly  and  fully  adapted  to  growth.  Every  form,  de- 
tail, accident  could  be  used  when  needed  by  the  thought, 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  Ill 

and  sufficiently  exercised  or  repeated  until  it  becomes  a 
product  of  automatic  action.  Under  this  presentation 
the  questions  above  given  can  receive  affirmative 
answers. 

1.  There  is  no  spelling  book  extant  which  contains 
the  number  of  words  that  should  be  used  in  teaching 
geography.     By  the  writing  actually  necessary  to  the 
proper  development  of  the  subject,  spelling,  punctuation, 
use  of  capitals  and  penmanship  can  be  exercised  up  to 
the  stage  of  complete  skill,  if  pupils  are  made  to  do  their 
best  every  time  they  write. 

2.  Fixing  and  relating  the   thought   demand   the 
necessary  repetitions. 

3.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  acquisition  of  skill 
in  penmanship  should  not  follow  the  same  laws  of  ex- 
ercise and  repetition  as  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  pro- 
nunciation,  enunciation    and   articulation;    that  is,  it 
should  be  acquired  under  the  direct  influence   and  ne- 
cessities of  thought.    Penmanship  is  much  less  complex 
than   spelling,  and  the  physical  effort  (if  the  shortest 
line  of  resistance  be  used)  is  consequently  much  less. 

4.  The  fourth  question  has  already  been  answered, 
but  this  proviso  must  be  added,  and  strongly  urged : 
If  forms  of  thought  expression  are  made  the  end  and  aim 
of   teaching;    if  teaching   demands   expression   rather 
than  thought ;  if  pupils  memorize  text ;  if  the  examin- 
ations put   a   premium   on  the   sentences    pupils    can 


112  HOW    TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

write  or  otherwise  repeat,  then  any  attempt  to  teach 
forms  wholly  in  connection  with  thought  will  be  fruit- 
less. With  form  as  the  end,  spelling,  penmanship, 
grammar,  must  be  taught  as  isolated  subjects,  as  they 
present  in  method  the  matter  and  means  determined 
by  the  one  motive  of  making  language  the  end  and 
aim  of  teaching.  The  theory  presented  in  these  pages 
is  founded  upon  the  motive  of  harmonious  and  sym- 
metrical development.* 

A  few  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  teaching  may  be 
repeated  here : 

I.  Oral  and  written  language  should  be  continually 
used  in  every  step  of  the  teaching. 

II.  The  language  used  by  pupils  should  be  their 
own;  in  teaching  a   science  a  sentence  should  never  be 
memorized.     The  language  should  always  spring  from 
the  thought ;  that  is,  it  should  be  an  immediate  neces- 
sity for  the  expression  of  the  thought. 

III.  Incorrect  habits  or  faults  in  expression  (pro- 
nunciation, use  of  idioms,  etc.)  should  be  cured,  first 
by  an  absolutely  correct  model  of  expression  presented 
by  the  teacher ;  second,  all  mistakes  should  be  corrected 
by  the  immediate   presentation  and  repetition  of  the 
correct  form,  unless  such  correction  obviously  hinders 


*Ib  is  not  a  matter  of  congratulation  when  a  teacher  is  obliged  to  use  any 
means,  spelling  book,  text  book,  etc.,  when  by  enhanced  skill,  a  higher  and 
better  means  might  be  used.  A  teacher's  skill  equals  the  means  he  uses. 
A  certain  degree  of  teaching  power  demands  a  speller,  and  the  memorizing 
of  words. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   DIRECTIONS.  113 

the  thinking  of  pupils.  If  a  pupil  has  many  faults,  do 
not  attempt  to  reform  them  all  at  once ;  take  the  most 
prominent  first.  A  habit  must  be  corrected  by  doing 
the  right  thing,  and  letting  the  wrong  severely  alone. 

IV.  Whenever  any  detail  of  grammatical  construc- 
tion is  necessary  to  the  clearer  expression  of  thought, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  the  evolution  of  thought — 
whether  it  be  a  rule,  explanation,  analysis  or  defini- 
tion— introduce  it  and  see  thereafter  that  the   pupils 
comply  with  the  directions  given. 

V.  In  all  modes  of  expression  train  pupils  to  use 
the  shortest  line  of  resistance,  i.  e.,  the  least  possible 
physical  effort  consistent  with  the  greatest  audibility, 
intelligibility  or  legibility.     All  over-effort  in  speaking 
or  writing  adds  to  physical  effort  and  absorbs  mental 
power. 

VI.  Never  show  a  pupil  a  wrong  form  ;    make  all 
corrections  by  showing  the  absolutely  accurate  form. 

VII.  In  all  forms  of  expression  train  pupils  into 
the  habit  of  the  strictest  accuracy;  never  (with  the 
exception  III.)  allow  a  pupil  to  use  an  incorrect  form ; 
never  receive  a  paper  upon  which  there  is  a  single  mis- 
take in  orthography,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals  or 
syntax.     Train  pupils  to  know  when  they  do  not  know  a 
form,  and  train  them  to  find  the  correct  form  before 
they  attempt  to  write  it.     Sinking  correct  expression  into 
automatic  action  enhances    the  power    of    thought.     No 


114  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

pains  should  be  spared  to  attain  this  exceedingly  im- 
portant result. 

The  immense  importance  of  reading  and  the 
study  of  books  is  self-evident.  A  few  suggestions, 
however,  may  be  made  as  to  the  use  of  reading  and 
study.  Beading  is  a  process  of  arousing  certain  de- 
finite conscious  activities  by  means  of  printed  language. 
Study  of  books  is  precisely  the  same  process  with  added 
intensity ;  this  added  intensity  is  produced  by  holding 
and  reflecting  upon  the  thoughts  brought  into  con- 
sciousness by  means  of  the  printed  words. 

The  value  of  reading  and  study  depends,  primarily, 
upon  the  kind  and  value  of  the  conscious  activities 
aroused  by  the  words.  The  value  of  the  conscious 
activities  depends  entirely  upon  the  conformity  of  the 
thought  to  the  immediate  needs  of  growth.  In  these 
statements  there  is  a  sure  and  safe  guide  to  teachers  in 
the  selection  of  topics  for  reading  and  study.  A  very 
important  truth  should  also  be  borne  in  mind,  to  wit : 
all  reading  may  be  so  selected  as  to  bear  directly  upon 
the  organic  growth  of  the  body  of  knowledge  or  the  science 
taught ;  there  need  be  very  little  pointless  and  useless 
reading.  Observation,  reading,  study,  molding,  paint- 
ing, drawing  can  and  should  be  used  in  structural  geog- 
raphy to  build  into  the  mind  the  general  concepts  cor- 
responding to  the  general  structure  of  the  continent. 
A  mature,  well  developed  mind  can  form  these  valuable 


SUGGESTIONS    AND    DIRECTIONS.  115 

concepts  without  the  immediate  aid  of  the  related 
pictures  of  the  land,  clothed  in  the  bright  colors  of  veg- 
etation, or  the  knowledge  of  the  animals  and  races  of 
men  which  use  the  structure  for  their  homes,  together 
with  interesting  accounts  of  travels,  salient  events  of 
history  and  vivid  description  of  scenery ;  but  immature 
minds  must  have  them  to  aid  in  the  information  of  the 
fundamental  concepts.  So  at  every  step  descriptions 
of  scenery,  climate,  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  the 
acts  of  men  should  be  made  to  assist  in  the  one  pur- 
pose, which  in  after-study  is  to  be  the  great  basis  of 
memory  and  the  means  of  explanation.  One  line  of 
reading  has  already  been  indicated,  i.  c.,  reading  which 
arouses  and  stimulates  curiosity;  the  second  line  is 
that  reading  and  study  which  induces  the  particularly 
required  subjective  condition  of  the  mind.  For  both 
purposes  the  most  careful  selections  should  be  made. 
Nothing  should  be  read  which  does  not  interest  or 
instruct. 

Descriptions,  travels,  novels,  poetry  and  history 
may  be  used  with  great  profit  in  the  study  of  geography 
to  arouse  curiosity  and  present  conditions  for  growth  in 
the  subject.  One  very  useful  suggestion  may  here  be 
added,  to  wit :  each  teacher  should  keep  a  carefully 
made  up  list  of  books  and  selections  which  have  been 
of  assistance  in  the  study;  the  special  topic  and  grade 
should  be  given  in  the  record.  One  kind  of  reading 


Il6  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

should  be  avoided;  the  reading  which  explains  arid 
defines  those  things  which  pupils  properly  taught  can 
discover  for  themselves.  The  definition  of  a  hill,  river, 
cape  or  island,  that  has  been  or  may  be  seen  by  the 
children,  is  a  means  of  depriving  them  of  the  privilege 
of  exercising  their  observing  powers.  Not  long  ago  a 
teacher  published  a  list  of  simple  questions  or  problems 
in  physical  geography.  Many  letters  were  written  in- 
quiring "where  they  could  find  the  answers?  "  The  prob- 
lems have  but  one  purpose,  and  that,  to  stimulate  original 
investigation,  so  as  to  lead  to  a  clear  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  of  physical  action  in  earth,  air  and  water. 
The  mere  memorizing  of  the  answers  would  stimulate 
what?  Superintendent  Rowland  asked  a  grammar 
class  in  geography  "how  wide  is  a  strait?  "  One  pupil 
answered,  hesitatingly,  "About  an  inch, "  while  another 
pupil,  encouraged  by  a  genial  smile  said,  "  It  might  be 
a  foot  wide. "  A  memorized  definition  stood  in  the  way. 
of  anything  like  a  knowledge  of  reality. 

Number  and  arithmetic  are  essential  factors  in 
teaching  geography.  The  development  of  concepts  of 
structure  depends  very  largely  upon  ideas  of  distance, 
area  and  height,  and  the  relation  of  these  ideas  each  to 
the  other  and  to  all.  These  ideas  are  the  products  of 
that  power  of  the  mind  which  separates,  combines  and 
limits  things  by  ones,  the  power  of  numbering.  Dis- 
tances, areas  and  heightr;  r.va  mentally  measured  by 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  117 

standards  of  measurement  fixed  in  the  mind  by  observa- 
tion. These  standards  of  inch,  foot,  yard,  rod,  mile, 
etc.,  are  the  means  by  which  unseen  distances  are  im- 
agined. When  a  natural  feature,  country  or  continent 
is  being  taught,  measurements  by  these  mental  stand- 
ards should  be  a  prime  factor  in  the  development.  At 
best,  exact  ideas  of  long  distances  and  vast  areas  are 
impossible;  they  can  be  approximate  only.  Yet  the 
only  way  of  acquiring  approximate  ideas  is  by  contin- 
ually exercising  the  numbering  power  in  its  relations  to 
the  formation  of  concepts.  The  child's  ideas  of  distance 
are  exceedingly  vague  and  indefinite ;  the  great  world  to 
him  is  his  immediate  surroundings,  the  small  one,  that 
which  lies  outside  of  his  sense-grasp ;  that  world  to  the 
child  is  a  matter  of  wonder  and  not  of  understanding. 
The  measurement  of  the  great  world  which  lies  beyond 
must  be  made  by  fixed  ideas  of  distance,  etc.,  acquired 
by  actual  experience. 

Thus  training  in  standards  of  measurement  should 
form  a  permanent  element  in  all  school  instruction.  Meas- 
ures of  inch,  foot,  yard,  rod,  linear,  square  and  cubic 
should  early  be  taught  by  actual  measurements  made 
by  pupils  themselves  on  blackboards  in  school  room, 
school  house  and  out  of  doors.  Pupils  should  be  taught 
to  measure  by  their  steps  :  how  many  feet,  yards,  rods 
are  there  from  your  home  to  the  school  house  ?  To  such 
and  such  a  house  ?  Judging  distances  should  be  one  im- 


Il8  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

portant  item ;  judging  first  and  then  testing  the  judg- 
ment by  actually  measuring.  Comparison  should  early 
enter  into  the  work.  Which  line  is  the  longer  ?  How 
much  longer?  Measure.  Which  area  is  the  larger? 
How  much  larger?  How  much  smaller?  Measure. 
Pupils  should  have  rulers  ready  for  use.  How  high  ? 
How  long  ?  How  wide  ?  What  is  the  area  ?  are  ques- 
tions which  should  be  closely  connected  with  all  investi- 
gations. Very  much  in  the  cultivation  of  ideas  of  dis- 
tance may  be  done  in  field  lessons ;  comparison  of  dis- 
tances from  one  point  to  another;  judging  distances 
that  pupils  walk ;  journeys  of  pupils  on  the  cars  and 
otherwise  may  be  used. 

All  maps  drawn  or  molded  should  be  made  to  a 
scale.  When  a  pupil  molds  a  river  basin  the  questions 
should  be  asked :  How  long  is  your  river  basin  ?  How 
wide  ?"  How  high  is  the  water-parting  ?  How  long  is 
the  river  ?  How  wide  the  right  slope  ?  The  left  slope  ? 
When  the  work  of  teaching  scientific  geography  begins 
(the  teaching  of  continents),  lengths,  breadths  and  areas 
of  the  continent,  of  river  basins  and  other  natural 
divisions  should  be  carefully  taught.  Anything  like  the 
memorizing  of  figures  which  simply  represent  the  dis- 
tances is  worse  than  useless.  The  only  purpose  of 
measurements  is  to  realize  approximately  those  elements 
of  length  and  breadth  so  essential  to  the  concepts  of 
structure. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  1 19 

When  approximate  ideas  of  the  area,  including,  of 
course,  length,  breadth  and  height,  of  one  continent, 
have  been  acquired,  this  continent  should  be  made  the 
standard  of  measurement  for  all  the  other  continents. 
The  same  can  be  said  of  natural  divisions  (river  basins, 
etc.)  and  also  political  divisions.  Compare,  compare, 
compare  at  every  step. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  what  an  essential  means  the 
countless  problems  of  measurement  and  comparison  in 
geography  may  be  made  to  a  mastery  of  the  subject 
of  arithmetic.  If  number  were  properly  applied  in  de- 
veloping ideas  of  extension,  areas,  solids,  weight,  force 
and  values  so  necessary  to  the  development  of  all  sub- 
jects, the  isolated  teaching  of  arithmetic  would  be  no 
longer  a  necessity. 

The  changes  of  the  seasons  and  the  phenomena 
of  the  countless  changes  in  climate,  vegetation  and 
animal  life  present  the  most  delightful  and  profitable 
means  of  teaching  geography,  in  fact,  in  teaching  all 
the  natural  sciences.  The  constant  phenomena  of  cli- 
matic changes  impinge  upon  all  the  senses  of  a  child, 
producing  feelings  of  both  pleasure  and  pain.  The  first 
fall  of  snow  is  a  joy  forever  to  the  child ;  the  frost  upon 
the  windpws,  the  ice  forming  upon  the  skating  pond, 
the  melting  of  snow,  freshets,  the  ever-marvelous 
awakening  from  the  death  of  winter  to  the  life  of 
spring,  the  first  green  shoots,  the  first  pussy  willows, 


120  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  first  living  insect,  the  migration  of  the  birds,  the 
first  flower,  the  blossoming  of  fruit  trees,  one  and  all 
supply  the  richest  and  most  abundant  means  of  keep- 
ing in  vigorous  activity  the  spontaneous  love  and  eager 
curiosity  of  children.  Materials  for  new  and  interest- 
ing lessons  are  on  every  hand;  rain, rain  drops,  clouds, 
mist,  fog,  frost,  ice,  uses  of  water,  germination  of  seeds, 
growth  of  plants  and  countless  matters  of  childish  in- 
terest. The  weather  should  be  eagerly  watched,  the 
wind,  direction,  causes,  cold,  the  sun,  changes  of  posi- 
tion, slanting  rays,  changes  at  the  equinoxes  and  sols- 
tices ;  the  temperature  should  be  studied  by  means  of  a 
thermometer ;  barometers  should  also  be  used.  In  the 
fourth  grade  weather  reports  in  the  newspapers  should 
be  read  and  studied.  A  snow  storm  may  be  used  for 
delightful  reading  lessons ;  the  words  snow,  white,  fall- 
ing, ground,  flakes,  etc.,  may  be  written  upon  the  black- 
board in  appropriate  sentences.  The  thought  that  the 
snow  is  a  white  blanket  to  cover  the  cold  ground  may 
be  brought  out.  Stories  of  snow-capped  mountains, 
countries  covered  by  perpetual  snow  arouse  the  won- 
der and  curiosity  of  children. 

A  rain  storm  or  a  shower  may  be  the  subject  of 
close  observation ;  the  rain  drops,  the  clouds,  puddles 
of  water,  little  streams  newly  formed,  the  wearing  of 
the  water  present  opportunities  for  the  first  lessons  in 
erosion.  The  countless  and  marvelous  changes  from 


SUGGESTIONS  AND    DIRECTIONS. 

the  dead,  snow-covered  earth  of  winter  to  the  living 
green  of  spring  afford  endless  means  for  observation, 
investigation  and  study.  Beading  lessons,  language, 
drawing,  painting  can  be  constantly  used  to  enhance 
the  intensity  and  steadiness  of  the  observing  powers. 

Bring  the  child's  heart  close  to  the  wonderful 
secrets  of  nature ;  cultivate  the  senses  to  the  full,  and 
in  such  a  cultivation  the  sweetest,  purest  and  holiest 
thoughts  will  be  aroused  and  kept  alive;  habits  of 
observation  and  investigation  will  be  formed,  which  are 
essential  factors  in  the  soundest  education.  Such 
training  makes  pupils  constant  and  continual  students ; 
they  learn  to  study  the  everlasting  problems  of  earth, 
air,  water  and  sky,  of  life  and  growth  which  are  ever 
before  them.  The  child  is  a  born  naturalist,  and  blind- 
ness to  the  eternal  truths  of  nature  is  a  product  of  mis- 
directed education. 

Lessons  in  the  changes  that  are  involved  in  chang- 
ing seasons  should  be  begun  in  the  lowest  class  and  be 
continued  throughout  the  entire  course.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  force  observation  or  to  draw 
inferences  unsupported  by  facts  discovered  by  the  pupils. 

Field  lessons  are  an  indispensable  means  in  teach- 
ing geography.  The  principle  by  which  concepts  of 
structure  that  lie  entirely  beyond  sense-grasp  are  formed 
in  the  mind  has  already  been  stated ;  the  absolute  de- 
pendence of  the  imagination  or  the  powers  of  apper- 


122  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

ception  upon  those  concepts  which  come  into  the  mind 
by  observation,  is  probably  the  best  known  and  the  most 
undeniable  fact  in  psychology.  The  strength  of  the 
activity  in  apperception  depends  mainly,  if  not  wholly, 
upon  the  clear  and  vivid  concepts  gained  by  observa- 
tion, and  which,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  are 
to  be  blended  and  united  into  new  wholes.  The  pro- 
duct of  field  lessons  should  be  vivid  pictures  of  natural 
features,  and  the  solution  of  problems  in  relation  to 
cause  and  effect  which  grow  out  of  the  conditions  of 
natural  features. 

It  is  a  very  high  test  of  the  tact  and  skill  of  any 
teacher  who  can  profitably  manage  a  field  lesson.  Such 
tact  consists  chiefly  in  leading  pupils  to  love  observa- 
tion and  study  better  than  play.  The  places  for  such 
visits  should  be  carefully  selected,  places  where  certain 
natural  features,  needed  for  observation,  are  quite 
prominent. 

Pupils  should  not  always  be  told  what  to  discover, 
that  is,  they  should  not  be  debarred  from  the  privileges 
of  original  discovery.  Establish  some  central  point  of 
observation  and  send  pupils  out  to  find  things  for  them- 
selves. A  sketch  book,  a  pile  of  sand  to  mold  a  hill 
in  sight,  etc.,  a  shovel,  a  geological  hammer  would  not 
come  amiss.  Distances  and  areas  should  be  actually 
measured,  and  those  which  cannot  be  easily  measured 
should  be  estimated.  Vegetation,  animals  and  facts  in 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  123 

political  geography  should  come  within  the  limits  of 
observation. 

In  school  again,  the  country  and  natural  features 
observed  should  be  molded  in  sand,  drawn  upon  the 
blackboard  and  paper,  and  described  both  orally  and 
in  writing.  Other  natural  features  like  those  visited 
may  be  described  by  the  teacher  or  in  selected  read- 
ings. The  desire  for  new  explorations  may  thus  be 
increased. 

Field  lessons  should  be  continued  throughout  the 
course ;  the  scope  of  observations  will  be  enlarged  as 
the  pupils'  minds  are  properly  developed. 

In  many  localities  the  forms  of  land  and  water 
that  make  up  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  may  be 
found ;  to  study  elementary  geography  in-doors  seems 
an  extravagant  waste  of  time  and  power.  Pupils  gen- 
erally have  a  large  stock  of  scattered  observations  that 
may  be  brought  together  and  related  by  field  lessons. 

From  parts  to  the  whole;  from  the  whole  to  the 
parts;  from  particulars  to  generals;  from  generals  to 
particulars  are  fundamental  pedagogical  principles  of 
the  first  importance.  The  general  process  of  teaching 
which  leads  to  growth  depends  upon  their  application. 
These  principles  can  be  illustrated  very  clearly  in  geog- 
raphy. It  is  evident  that  any  whole  or  object  of  thought 
must  be  in  consciousness  before  it  can  be  described,  ana- 
lyzed or  compared.  Judgment,  analysis  or  comparison 


124  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

of  all  objects,  those  within  sense-grasp  and  those  whi  da 
lie  beyond  the  sense-grasp  depend  absolutely  and  en- 
tirely upon  the  concepts  in  the  mind  which  correspond 
to  the  objects — judged,  analyzed  or  compared.  Place 
an  object  before  a  child ;  his  observation  of  that  object 
is  wholly  limited  to  the  concept  brought  into  conscious- 
ness by  the  presence  of  the  object.  No  matter  how 
many  attributes  and  relations  of  attributes  the  object  may 
contain,  it  is  the  mental  correspondence,  and  that  cor- 
respondence alone  upon  which  the  mind  can  act.  He 
really  sees  and  hears  only  that  of  which  he  is  conscious. 
This  is  just  as  true  of  products  of  apperception  or  im- 
agination. The  fundamental  knowledge  of  geography 
consists  of  concepts  of  structure  or  those  differentia- 
tions of  surface  that  make  up  the  character  or  organism 
of  the  continent  or  its  natural  parts.  These  concepts 
are  products  of  that  mental  power  called  apperception. 
(Imagination,  synthesis,  association  or  recollection  is 
the  same  power  essentially  under  a  different  name.) 

Apperception  may  be  denned  as  that  power  which 
the  mind  has  of  blending,  commingling,  combining  or 
uniting  ideas,  concepts  or  sense-products.  This  power 
makes  new  concepts  out  of  old  ones ;  out  of  concepts 
of  hills,  valleys,  plains  with  their  slopes  a  concept  of 
a  river  basin;  out  of  concepts  of  river  basins  and 
river  basin  systems  a  concept  of  a  continent  is  formed  ; 
out  of  concepts  of  continents  and  oceans  the  concept 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  125 

of  the  whole  earth  is  formed.  There  can  be  no  anal- 
ysis, judgment  or  even  inference  made  of,  or  concern- 
ing a  whole  unless  that  whole  is  a  subject  of  thought 
— a  concept  in  consciousness — and  there  can  be  no 
\vhole  in  the  mind  unless  it  is  produced  there,  by  a 
process  of  growth  or  evolution  of  parts  into  wholes. 
Fundamental  growth  consists  of  the  synthesis  of  parts 
into  wholes,  facts  into  generalizations,  elements  into 
principles.  This  all-essential  pedagogical  principle,  as 
has  been  already  said,  is  fully  illustrated  by  the  process 
of  the  growth  of  a  concept  of  a  continent.  A  teacher 
who  has  the  requisite  knowledge  and  who  closely  and 
skillfully  leads  and  watches  the  mental  activities  of 
his  pupils  will  gain  full  proof  of  the  mind's  dependence 
in  synthesis  upon  sense-products,  and  that  synthetized 
wholes  alone  can  be  subjects  of  attention. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  decidedly  one  of  the 
greatest  faults  in  all  teaching  is  the  fruitless  attempt  to 
force  pupils  to  think  of  concepts  that  are  not  in  their  minds. 
Of  course  such  a  thing  is  utterly  impossible ;  the  worth- 
less and  even  injurious  outcome  of  such  teaching  is  the 
memorizing  of  meaningless  words,  and  a  permanent 
dislike  for  the  subject  so  mistaught.  A  thorough  under- 
standing on  the  part  of  teachers  of  this  law  of  going 
from  parts  to  wholes,  from  facts  to  generalizations  would 
enable  them  to  decide  the  much  mooted  question 
whether  the  initial  step  in  geography  should  be  the 


126  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

whole  round  world,  the  universe,  a  continent,  or  objects 
that  are  or  have  been  within  the  sense-grasp  of  the 
little  beginners.  What  has  a  child  in  his  consciousness 
when  he  is  taught  (sic)  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere  ? 
Something  upon  which  his  mental  powers  can  act? 
Something  corresponding  to  reality?  Or  merely  a 
miniature  globe? 

The  selection  of  facts,  details  and  parts  which  are 
by  mental  combination  to  make  up  the  general  whole, 
is  of  the  first  importance,  and  in  this  selection  is  in- 
volved the  question  of  what  shall  make  the  first  gen- 
eral whole,  i.  e.,  the  first  step  in  scientific  geography. 
The  latter  question  may  be  taken  first.  The  imagined 
or  apperceived  wholes  in  geography  are  combinations  of 
sense-products — direct  results  of  sight  and  observation. 
This  fact  shows  the  necessity  of  field  lessons,  observa- 
tions and  study  of  the  surrounding  country.  From  the 
necessity  for  the  study  of  immediate  environment  has 
sprung  the  very  grave  mistake  of  going  from  the  ob- 
servations thus  acquired,  to  the  study  of  the  countries 
or  land  which  lie  just  outside  of  the  reach  of  sight, 
and  then  increasing  the  circle  until  it  takes  in  the  whole 
country  or  continent.  There  are  two  undeniable  proofs 
of  this  error ;  first,  mere  spacial  proximity  has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with 'the  powers  of  a  pupil  to  imagine 
the  structure  of  a  country  that  lies  beyond  his  obser- 
vation— Italy,  Greece,  Egypt  or  Palestine  can  be  imag- 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  127 

ined  as  easily  as  the  adjacent  country,  and  indeed  much 
more  easily  than  most  countries,  as  the  structures  of 
these  regions  are  very  simple ;  second,  the  plain  rule  or 
procedure  in  going  from  the  part  to  the  whole  is  to  form 
a  real  whole  that  can  be  the  most  easily  imagined  or 
apperceived.  All  attempts  at  complexity  should  be 
avoided;  the  simplest  general  whole  should  be  the 
first  objective  point.  This  simple  whole  is  first  found 
in  the  river  basin  and  second  in  the  continent,  each 
made  up  of  simple  slopes,  constituting  an  organism  for 
life.  The  next  county,  or  the  State  in  which  one  lives,  is 
in  structure  far  more  complex ;  far  more  difficult  to 
imagine  than  an  entire  continent,  just  as  the  anatomy 
of  a  finger  or  a  muscle  is  more  difficult  than  the  anat- 
omy of  the  entire  framework  of  the  body.  Two  great 
slopes,  two  great  land  masses,  each  with  two  slopes,  all 
including  four  great  river  basins  and  four  river  basin 
systems,  make  up  the  simple  framework  of  North 
America.  In  this  simple  concept  may  be  found  by 
study  and  analysis  countless  modifications,  an  im- 
mense complexity,  but  these  modifications  of  slopes  and 
combined  slopes  should  be  found  inside  of  the  general 
whole,  for  any  attempt  to  go  from  all  the  parts  to  a 
complete  whole  is  injurious  to  growth.  This  leads  to 
the  discussion  of  the  first  question,  the  question  of  the 
selection  of  details,  which  will  make  up  the  general 
whole. 


128  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  geography  is  full  of 
innumerable  details,  countless  facts,  all  of  which  may 
be  interesting  and  ofttimes  fascinating  to  the  close 
student.  The  chief  danger  to  the  teacher  who  is  really 
trying  to  teach  scientifically  is  the  attempt  to  teach  a 
multiplicity  of  details,  details  that  form  no  part  of  the 
first  (to  the  learner)  general  whole,  and  which  actually 
obstruct,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  his  power  to  generalize. 
This  fact  has  a  complete  illustration  in  a  way  of  teach- 
ing all  too  common  in  schools.  First  a  glance  at  the 
whole  world,  with  zones  and  meridians  (bounding 
what  ?) ;  then  a  dash  of  observation,  followed  by  the 
political  geography  of  a  county ;  then  the  state ;  then 
groups  of  states ;  teaching  the  United  States  follows, 
and  at  last  encumbered  by  an  ocean  of  details  the  con- 
tinent becomes  the  object  of  thought.  This  seems  to 
be  the  exact  reverse  of  natural  teaching.* 

It  accounts  for  the  prolonged  and  ofttimes  ineffec- 
tual struggle  pupils  have,  who  have  been  the  victims  of 
such  a  course,  to  use  their  imaginations  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  general  whole.  This  is  also  just  as  true  of 
all  other  subjects  of  study  as  it  is  of  geography ;  the 
fatal  mistake  of  many  teachers,  and  especially  of 
specialists  in  education,  is  to  lead  their  pupils  into  the 
search  for  (to  the  teachers)  alluring  details  instead  of 

*  By  natural  teaching  is  meant  that  teaching  which  presents  the  condi- 
tions adapted  and  conforming  to  the  laws  of  human  growth. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  1 29 

teaching  just  enough  of  facts  for  the  purposes  of  clear 
and  simple  generalizations. 

The  natural  process  of  going  from  particulars  to 
generals  arouses  a  spontaneous  energy  as  strongly  act- 
ing in  the  child  as  in  the  man ;  when  the  child  classi- 
fies a  rose  or  animal  he  does  it  by  means  of  this  ever- 
acting  power.  The  tendency  of  the  mind, when  a  whole 
is  formed,  is  to  turn  upon  that  whole  and  analyze  it — 
that  is,  to  distinctly  cognize  the  parts  of  the  whole,  and 
cognize  the  relations  of  each  part  or  element  to  the 
whole.  Comparison  is  a  mode  of  analysis,  and  the 
special  function  of  analysis  is  to  reinforce  synthesis. 
The  more  active  the  analytic  power  is  the  stronger  the 
synthetic  power  will  become  if  the  parts  or  elements  are 
related  to  the  general  whole.  Into  the  clear,  simple, 
general  whole  of  the  concept  of  a  continent  and  of  the 
world  will  come  by  proper  study  the  countless  details, 
modifications  of  structure ;  river  basins  will  spring  up 
within  river  basins,  slopes  within  slopes,  political  divi- 
sions, states,  cities  and  their  boundaries  will  be  related 
in  their  proper  positions  to  the  general  whole.  Modifi- 
cations, changes,  events  in  history,  current  news  will  all 
have  a  place  in  the  mind,  fixed  in  the  memory,  by 
logical  association.  This  is  the  true  cultivation  of  the 
philosophic  memory,  which  is  identical  with  mind  develop- 
ment. 


130  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

Concentration.  A  cursory  reading  of  this  book 
might  lead  to  the  judgment  that  its  tendency  conflicts 
with  the  doctrines  laid  down  in  the  preceding  section ; 
that  is,  so  many  details  presented  for  study  might  lead 
to  hopeless  confusion  rather  than  to  clearness  of 
thought  and  compactness  of  knowledge.  Many  teach- 
ers will  doubtless  feel  that  it  is  impossible  to  teach  so 
much  in  so  short  a  time,  this  work  taking  its  due  pro- 
portion of  time  with  other  studies.  It  is  readily  grant- 
ed that  looking  at  the  manifold  subjects  of  study  from 
the  standpoint  of  isolation  or  the  non-relation  of  one 
subject  to  all  the  others  would  cause  an  emotion  akin 
to  despair,  especially  if  a  written  examination  upon  the 
facts  ( ?)  learned  were  to  follow ;  but  from  the  standpoint 
of  unity,  of  growth,  there  is  much  to  hope. 

The  purpose  in  teaching  geography  is  to  build  in 
the  mind  a  symmetrical  organic  body  of  knowledge — 
knowledge  which  is  power.  Teaching  is  the  presenta- 
tion of  external  conditions  for  the  development  of  this 
power.  The  conditions  in  each  and  all  stages  and  un- 
der all  mental  conditions  should  be  adapted  to  the  end 
in  view.  No  means,  however  full  the  course  of  study 
may  be,  should  be  used  that  is  not  an  economy  in  the 
development  of  power;  the  final  selection  of  means 
should  always  remain  with  the  teacher,  but  the  teacher, 
in  turn,  should  use  all  the  necessary  means  he  can  find, 
and  the  finding  of  better  means  is  endless.  There  is 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  131 

no  such  thing  as  grade  in  the  art  of  teaching ;  the  low- 
est primary  teacher  should  have  just  as  much  knowledge 
of  a  subject  which  she  begins  to  teach  as  the  teacher  of 
the  highest  grade  who  finishes  ( ?)  the  subject.  Other- 
wise the  teacher  is  an  artisan  and  not  an  architect  or 
an  artist;  the  teacher  must  know  the  general  whole 
before  she  can  properly  teach  a  part.  A  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  importance  of  essential  details  and 
a  full  comprehension  of  the  right  ideal  enlarge  the 
dignity  of  the  teacher.  Present  good  is  everlasting 
good,  and  everything  which  ought  to  be  taught  should 
be  fixed  in  the  mind  forever.  The  main  question  is 
not  one  of  time,  but  of  growth,  and  growth  of  soul 
is  eternal. 

Form,  color  and  number  constitute  a  powerful 
trinity  of  means  in  growth ;  they  enter  essentially  into 
all  geographical  teaching ;  they  do  not  take  time  away 
from  geographical  teaching ;  they  are  necessities  in  the 
teaching.  If  properly  understood  and  skillfully  han* 
died  nearly  all  of  arithmetic  could  be  taught  in  teach- 
ing geography,  and  every  problem  in  number  would 
enhance  the  value  of  the  main  thought. 

Observation,  hearing  language  and  reading  (in- 
cluding study  of  books)  are  the  main  processes  of 
thought  evolution.  One  can  easily  understand  that 
countless  opportunities  are  presented  for  training  the 
senses  in  teaching  geography,  that  subjects  and  objects 


132  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

for  oral  and  object  teaching  are  without  limit  in  this 
and  cognate  subjects.  Beading  can  always  be  used  for 
the  study  of  subjects,  and  not  merely  for  exercise  in 
reading,  and  a  proper  share  should  be  given  to  geog- 
raphy. Thus  these  three  main  processes  of  thought 
need  not  take  one  minute  of  time  outside  of  their  use 
in  teaching  the  principal  branches.  The  function  of 
expression,  whatever  mode  is  employed,  oral  or  writ- 
ten, drawing,  painting  or  modeling,  is  to  compact 
and  intensify  thought.  Each  mode  has  some  spec- 
ial and  separate  function  for  which  no  other  mode  can 
become  a  substitute.  Each  mode,  too,  is  an  absolute 
necessity  to  the  study  of  geography.  Oral  language 
with  all  its  accidents — grammatical  construction  (as  has 
been  shown  under  language),  may  be  thoroughly  taught 
in  teaching  geography.  The  same  can  be  said  of  the 
written  language  including  penmanship  and  spelling. 
The  functions  of  drawing  and  painting  have  been  else- 
where described.  There  is  no  doubt  that  if  all  these 
modes  of  expression  are  properly  used  in  teaching 
geography  the  acquirement  of  good  technical  skill  and 
accuracy  would  be  a  secondary  but  very  important  re- 
sult. Under  these  conditions,  and  used  for  the  teach- 
ing of  all  subjects,  training  in  the  modes  of  expression, 
instead  of  taking  extra  time,  would  save  very  much  time. 
Not  too  many  studies,  but  too  little  genuine  teaching  is 
the  trouble.  All  sciences  grow  naturally  out  of  geog- 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   DIRECTIONS.  133 

raphy.  Structure  is  the  primary  teaching  of  geology, 
geology  of  mineralogy ;  problems  in  physics  or  chemistry 
present  themselves  wherever  motion  is  observed ;  botany 
grows  out  of  the  study  of  soil  and  drainage ;  zoology 
and  its  kindred  sciences  follow,  to  be  followed  in  turn 
by  the  highest  of  sciences,  that  of  man  and  his  history  ; 
thus  there  is  but  one  science,  the  science  of  life,  the 
science  of  organic  matter  explained  by  the  inorganic. 
Concentration  is  co-ordination  of  all  kindred  subjects 
into  one  subject ;  it  consists  in  the  development  of  form, 
color  arid  number,  essential  factors  in  all  subjects ;  it 
uses  continually  the  same  process  of  mental  evolution 
induced  by  oral  or  written  language,  drawing,  painting 
or  modeling ;  it  turns  each  and  all  modes  of  thought- 
expression  directly  back  upon  the  development  of 
thought  power,  employing  the  function  of  a  mode  of 
expression  whenever  that  mode  enhances  the  strength 
of  conscious  activities.  There  are  more  opportunities 
for  skill-acquisition  in  this  direction  than  any  other ;  it 
requires,  however,  the  keenest  discernment  to  know  just 
what  is  needed  and  all  that  is  needed  to  awaken,  stim- 
ulate and  guide  the  growing  faculties. 


NOTRS  ON  THR  GOURSR  OF 
STUDY. 


FIRST  GRADE. 

Color.  The  power  to  see  colors  and  to  discriminate 
between  colors  is  best  acquired  by  painting.  A  little 
box  of  water  colors  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
Painting  should  be  done  without  first  outlining.  Pupils 
should  be  trained  to  mix  paints  and  adapt  the  colors  to 
the  colors  which  they  are  representing.  Objects  used 
in  teaching  natural  sciences  should  be  painted,  such  as 
leaves,  fruits,  flowers,  seeds,  nuts  and  animals.  The 
first  attempts  will  be  exceedingly  crude ;  the  line  of 
criticism  should  be  to  lead  a  pupil  to  notice  the  most 
prominent  defect  in  his  work  and  change  that ;  follow 
this  plan  steadily ;  remember  that  better  painting  means 
better  and  closer  observation.  Birds  as  they  appear  in 
the  spring  may  be  painted  from  stuffed  specimens.  Do 
not  be  afraid  of  great  crudeness ;  and  be  very  careful 
not  to  discourage  any  attempts  on  the  part  of  your 
pupils.  Encourage  effort,  and  let  results  take  care  of 
themselves. 

Form.  The  best  way  to  teach  form  is  by  model- 
ing in  clay.  Model  natural  forms  first — apples,  peaches, 
plums,  nuts,  pears,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  etc. 
Plaques  of  leaves,  flowers  and  animals  may  be  modeled. 

134 


NOTES — FIRST   GRADE.  135 

The  lessons  in  form  should  be  so  directed  as  to  lead  up 
to  the  typical,  i.  e.,  sphere,  cylinder,  cube,  etc.  The 
line  of  criticism  should  be  the  same  as  in  painting; 
bear  patiently  with  the  most  awkward  attempts,  and 
suggest  changes  in  the  most  glaring  defect. 

Little  models  of  hills  may  be  made.  Common 
potters'  or  kindergarten  clay  may  be  obtained  for  one 
cent  and  a  half  a  pound.  Keep  the  clay  continually 
moist.  This  may  be  done  by  putting  wet  cloths  over  it. 
The  same  clay  may  be  used  repeatedly  by  soaking  it. 

A  sand  table  might  be  profitably  used.  This  is  a 
very  old  device.  A  long  table  with  raised  edges  and 
filled  with  foundry  or  clean  white  sand.  Hills,  valleys, 
houses,  etc.,  may  be  molded  upon  this  at  will  by  the 
children. 

Drawing.  Pupils  may  be  led  to  make  crude  at- 
tempts to  illustrate,  on  the  blackboard,  the  stories  told 
them.  They  should  illustrate  their  number  lessons 
within  proper  limits. 

Number.  All  objects  modeled,  painted,  described 
or  drawn  should  be  measured.  Lessons  in  distance  and 
area  should  be  given  by  lines,  squares  and  oblongs  upon 
the  blackboard.  For  example,  draw  upon  the  board  a 
line  six  inches  long. 
a  c  b 

How  far  is  it  from  a  to  b  ?  Measure  and  see  if 
you  are  right.  How  far  is  it  from  a  to  c,  one- half  the 


136  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

distance  from  a  to  b  ?  How  many  inches  are  there  from 
c  to  b  ?  If  a  snail  crawls  three  inches  in  an  hour,  how 
long  would  it  take  him  to  crawl  from  a  to  c  ?  From  c 
to  b ?  From  a  to  I?  The  same  and  similar  questions 
may  be  asked  concerning  feet,  yards  and  rods,  linear, 
square  and  cubical.  Distances  and  areas  should  be 
estimated  in  the  school-room  and  in  the  school-yard, 
and  these  measured  to  verify  the  estimates. 

Direction.  Train  pupils  to  know  the  points  of  the 
compass,  and  to  point  toward  the  North,  South,  East 
and  West  in  the  school-room,  the  school-yard  and  at 
home. 

Observations  of  the  weather  and  changes  of  seasons. 

Advantage  should  be  taken  of  showers,  storms,  of  rain 
and  snow,  cold  and  warm  days,  days  of  bright  sunshine 
and  cloudy  days.  A  short  time,  each  session,  should  be 
devoted  to  a  conversation  about  the  weather.  Teachers 
would  do  well  to  keep  a  record  of  the  answers  of  their 
pupils.  Where  does  the  rain  come  from  ?  What  are 
the  clouds?  Of  what  color  are  the  clouds?  What 
color  is  the  sky  ?  The  sun  ?  The  moon  ?  The  stars  ? 
Where  does  the  rain  go  ?  What  is  ice  ?  What  are  the 
uses  of  ice  ?  What  makes  it  warm  ?  Cold  ?  Where 
does  the  sun  rise  ?  Where  does  it  set  ?  What  part  of 
the  day  is  the  sun  the  highest  ?  What  makes  it  dark  ? 
What  is  water  good  for  ?  All  explanations  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  should  have  the  effect  of  arousing  the 


NOTES — FIRST   GRADK.  137 

eager  curiosity  of  pupils.     Be  careful  not  to  give  too 
many  explanations. 

Growth  of  plants.  Examine  seeds,  paint  and 
mold  them ;  have  pupils  plant  in  sand,  loam,  cotton  in 
water,  thick  brown  paper  kept  damp,  and  then  watch 
their  germination  and  growth.  Paint  the  leaves,  buds 
and  roots  as  they  grow.  Lead  pupils  to  watch  eagerly 
all  changes  in  growth.  Observe  changes  in  vegetation 
outside  of  the  school-room.  Have  pupils  collect  speci- 
mens of  leaves,  flowers,  roots,  etc.  Kemember  the 
main  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  lead  to  a  great  love  for 
investigation  and  to  make  them  careful  observers. 

Animals.  Begin  with  live  animals,  and  then  use 
skins  of  animals  or  stuffed  animals.  Have  no  set  forms 
of  lessons  or  make  up  your  mind  that  children  must 
observe  certain  things.  Aid  your  pupils  to  observe  and 
then  follow  the  course  of  their  observations,  rather  than 
fixing  a  line  for  them  to  follow.  Have  pupils  make  col- 
lections of  insects ;  collect  cocoons,  paint  them,  and 
then  lead  pupils  to  watch  the  metamorphoses  into  moths 
and  butterflies.  Lessons  on  animals  should  be  con- 
fined in  primary  grades  to :  (1)  Form ;  (2)  Habits  ; 
(3)  Food ;  (4)  Houses,  nests,  dens,  etc ;  (5)  Young  and 
care  of  young ;  (6)  Adaptation  of  body  to  life,  i.  e., 
teeth  for  gnawing,  feet  for  swimming,  etc. ;  (7)  Cover- 
ing, as  fur,  feathers  for  protection  from  cold,  or  defense 
against  enemies. 


138  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Fairy  tales.  Tell  pupils  a  fairy  tale  at  least  once 
a  week.  Have  them  tell  you  the  story,  using  their  ov;n 
language.  Illustrate  the  stories  by  drawings  on  the 
blackboard. 

Reading  and  language.  All  reading  lessons  and 
all  the  cultivation  of  oral  and  written  language  may 
spring  from  the  lessons  above  suggested  in  this  course. 
In  fact,  the  lessons  in  reading  may  and  should  be  made 
the  essential  means  of  teaching  the  subjects  suggested, 
and  not  the  subjects  the  means  of  teaching  the  lan- 
guage. Every  new  word  that  the  children  use  should 
be  immediately  written  upon  the  blackboard  ;  it  should 
also  be  written  upon  a  slip  of  paper  and  go  into  the 
child's  dictionary.* 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Continue  the  observation  lessons  and  practice  in 
the  acquisition  of  technical  skill  begun  in  the  first  grade. 


*  The  child's  dictionary  is  a  device  to  assist  children  in  helping  themselves 
to  the  use  of  all  the  words  they  are  learning.  These  words  are  distinctly 
written  by  the  teacher  on  slips  of  stiff  paper  or  cardboard,  and  put  in  order 
on  a  framework  of  wire  (a  frame  used  by  merchants  for  business  cards). 
When  a  child  wishes  to  use  a  word  in  writing,  he  goes  to  the  "dictionary," 
finds  and  uses  it.  In  the  second  and  third  grades,  these  words  and  all  new 
ones  are  written  in  a  blank  book  and  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  No 
word  is  put  into  the  dictionary  unless  it  is  needed  by  the  class.  In  the  fourth 
grade,  a  real  dictionary  may  be  used.  The  answers  of  the  children  may  be 
written  upon  the  board,  and  then  read  by  the  class.  While  giving  any  lesson 
the  teacher  writes  part  of  the  story  on  the  board,  Intense  desire  on  the  part 
of  children  to  know  words  is  the  one  great  secret  of  learning  to  read  rapidly 
and  correctly. 


NOTES — SECOND   GRADE.  139 

Color  and  drawing.  The  painting  should  be  con- 
tinued. Careful,  steady  criticism  should  lead  children 
to  closer  and  closer  observation.  A  test  of  the  influ- 
ence of  painting  is  the  power  to  draw  outlines  of  objects. 
Just  as  soon  as  a  pupil  can  draw  an  outline  of  an 
object,  regular  training  in  drawing  should  begin.  Con- 
tinue illustrations  of  stories. 

Number,  form  and  distance.  Draw  and  estimate 
distances  and  areas  both  in  and  out  of  doors.  Draw 
little  maps  illustrating  scenes  of  stories,  and  estimate 
distances  in  maps.  Model  typical  forms,  sphere,  cylin- 
der, cube,  etc.  Have  pupils  describe  the  forms  that 
they  model. 

Use  sand  in  molding  hills,  valleys,  etc. 

Draw  plan  of  school-room. 

Locate  streets  and  houses  in  the  vicinity. 

Lessons  upon  sky,  horizon,  zenith,  vertical,  hori- 
zontal and  curved  lines. 

Changes  of  seasons.  In  addition  to  former  obser- 
vations, observe  winds,  direction  of  winds,  sunlight, 
shadows,  movement  of  the  sun.  Draw  a  line  on  the 
floor  where  the  sun's  rays  fall  at  a  certain  time  in  the 
day,  and  have  pupils  notice  the  changes  in  succeeding 
days.  Follow  closely  the  changes  from  autumn  to 
winter,  and  from  winter  to  spring. 

Vegetation.  Plant  seeds  as  in  the  first  grade. 
Observe  plants  and  trees  in  the  surrounding  country. 


140  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY, 

Begin  field  lessons.  Name  the  trees ;  teach  pupils  to 
distinguish  them.  Compare  their  leaves  and  barks. 
Take  impressions  of  leaves  upon  plaques  of  clay. 
Draw  the  trees. 

Have  lessons  upon  fruits  and  valuable  seeds — 
wheat,  rye,  rice,  barley,  coffee,  etc.  Draw  a  plan  of  a 
garden  and  locate  different  plants ;  let  each  originate 
and  draw  his  own  plan,  estimating  distances  and  area, 
giving  space  for  flowers,  vegetables,  etc. 

Animals.  Lessons  upon  animals,  forms,  structure, 
^ur  or  feathers ;  use  of  animals ;  food.  Collect  insects. 
Observe  birds,  migration,  nests,  eggs,  etc. 

Teach  pupils  how  animals  make  their  houses,  dens, 
nests  and  other  places  of  abode. 

Tell  pupils  and  have  read  stories  about  animals. 
Model  animals  in  clay ;  paint  and  draw  them. 

Fairy  tales.  Continue  the  course  in  carefully 
selected  fairy  stories,  drawing,  illustrating  and  indica- 
ting localities  by  maps.  Have  pupils  read  stories  from 
books  as  soon  as  possible. 

Reading  and  language.  Select  the  reading  just 
as  far  as  possible  in  connection  with  the  subjects 
taught.  Continue  blackboard  reading,  making  lessons 
about  plants,  animals,  etc.  Books  recommended  for 
this  grade : 

"Classics  for  Children" — A  Primer:  Ginn  &  Co. 


NOTES — THIRD    GRADE.  141 

"Stories  for  Kindergartens  and  Primary  Schools:" 
Ginn  &  Co. 

"The  Book  of  Folk  Stories : "  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Review  the  work  of  previous  grades  and  continue 
the  different  lines  of  observation  and  study. 

Geography  in  connection  with  history.  History 
is  begun  in  this  grade  with  descriptions  of  the  homes, 
lives  and  habits  of  barbarous  tribes.  The  Eskimos  is 
the  first  subject ;  a  map  of  the  country  where  they  live 
may  be  drawn.  A  globe  may  be  presented  and  the  cold 
North  pointed  out.  Eskimo  houses  described,  drawn 
and  molded  in  clay  or  sand ;  cooking  utensils,  boats, 
weapons,  food,  clothing,  animals  they  hunt,  habits  and 
customs.  Bead  "Seven  Little  Sisters  : "  Lee  &  Shepard. 

Soils.  Lessons  on  pebbles,  gravel,  sand,  clay, 
loam  and  rocks.  Have  pupils  collect  specimens  of  each 
kind  of  soil.  Observe  soils  in  field  lessons.  Find  uses 
of  the  different  kinds  of  soils.  Give  object  lessons  in 
the  common  minerals ;  teach  pupils  to  distinguish  them. 

Forms  of  water.  Steam,  mist,  fog,  vapor,  clouds, 
ice,  hail,  snow,  dew,  frost ;  find  the  uses  of  each  form, 
and  how  the  changes  take  place  from  one  form  to  the 
other. 


142  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Observe  the  use  of  water  in  the  nourishment  of 
plants ;  what  does  water  carry  up  into  plants  to  make 
them  grow ;  how  different  kinds  of  sap  taste. 

Simple  lessons  in  heat,  cold,  air  and  the  movements 
of  air. 

Each  day  have  a  short  conversation  upon  the 
changes  of  weather;  rain,  snow,  sunshine,  etc.  Have 
pupils  notice  the  changes  in  the  lengths  of  shadows ; 
the  changes  of  sunlight  upon  the  school-room  floor. 

Locate  places  mentioned  in  stories,  read  or  told. 
Field  lessons  in  hills,  valleys,  brooks,  ponds  and  rivers. 
Draw,  mold,  describe,  orally  and  by  writing. 

Continue  lessons  on  plants  and  animals.  Bead 
stories  of  animals  and  describe  their  homes. 

Bead  Johonnot's  book  of  "Cats  and  Dogs : "  Appleton. 

Mrs.  Tenney's  "Pictures  and  Stories  of  Animals:" 
Lee  &  Shepard. 

"Book  of  Fables:"     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Stories  of  Animals  in  "Munroe's  Second  Beader:" 
Cowperthwait. 

Lessons  upon  common  articles  of  food,  preparation 
for  cooking  and  process  of  cooking — corn,  wheat,  pota- 
toes, coffee,  rye,  barley,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  meats, 
etc.  Bead  "Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard." 

Lessons  upon  articles  of  clothing ;  material,  prepar- 
ation, manufacture ;  cotton,  wool,  flax,  skins  of  animals. 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  143 

In  all  these  lessons  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
with  the  language  of  pupils,  both  oral  and  written 
Never  allow  a  pupil  to  make  a  single  mistake  in  writing. 
Eemember  that  the  habit  of  accuracy  is  a  great  saving 
of  time  and  power ;  no  matter  how  much  time  it  takes 
to  cultivate  it,  it  is  time  saved  in  the  end.  All  writing 
should  be  done  with  pens.* 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

With  this  grade  a  more  systematic  study  of  geog- 
raphy is  begun.  The  mental  material  is  to  be  prepared 
for  the  apperception  of  the  concept  of  a  continent  by 
the  careful  observation  and  study  of  the  natural  fea- 
tures and  elements  of  land  and  water.  This  prepara- 
tion should  be  done  with  the  greatest  care,  because 
upon  it  depends  the  power  to  imagine  the  continents. 
All  previous  work  is  to  be  continued.  Lessons  upon 
color,  form,  number,  changes  of  seasons,  plants  and 
animals  should  become  more  and  more  systematic. 
The  mental  growth  of  pupils  in  these  subjects  should 
be  closely  watched,  and  new  conditions  presented  which 
are  adapted  to  their  enhanced  mental  powers.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  logical  reason  why  one  natural 
feature  should  be  the  first  object,  rather  than  another. 
The  rule  is  to  take  first  the  most  prominent,  and  the 

*Pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  write  with  pencil  and  then  copy  their 
work.    Have  pupils  write  a  very  little  at  a  time,  and  write  often. 


144    -  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

most  easily  accessible  natural  feature  first,  whether  it 
be  a  hill,  mountain,  plain,  valley  or  river.  The  proper 
observation  of  any  one  form  of  surface  will  lead  to 
the  study  of  all  the  others.  The  general  directions  for 
the  teaching  of  a  hill  or  any  other  natural  feature  are 
the  same  as  the  teaching  of  a  plant,  animal  or  mineral ; 
the  substantial  acquisitions  are  the  results  of  close  ob- 
servation.* Field  lessons  should  be  a  principal  factor 
in  the  teaching.  At  least  once  a  week  the  class  should 
visit  some  place,  where  profitable  observations  and 
investigations  may  be  made. 

Molding  in  sand,  painting,  drawing,  oral  and 
written  descriptions  should  be  used  continually  in  the 
development  of  concepts.  The  best  sand  to  use  may 
be  procured  at  any  foundry,  where  it  is  used  in  mold- 
ing. This  sand  should  be  kept  moist  and  well 
stirred  up  and  well  granulated  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
worked.  Common  beach  sand  may  be  used;  indeed, 
any  kind  of  loam.  There  is  no  excuse  whatever  for 
neglect  to  use  this  very  cheap  and  useful  means. 

A  sand  or  molding-table  may  be  easily  made.  A 
board  three  by  four,  or  four  by  five,  with  raised  edges, 
fixed  with  hinges  upon  a  table  just  high  enough  for 
pupils  is,  perhaps,  the  simplest  molding-table.  The 
best  kind  of  a  molding-table  in  use,  is  a  table,  made  for 


*Do  not  try  to  have  pupils  see  too  much.    Follow  them  and  not  oblige 
them  to  follow  you. 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE.  145 

the  purpose,  with  a  deep  drawer  for  sand,  and  arranged 
with  hinges  so  that  the  board  which  forms  the  top 
of  the  table  may  be  raised  lengthwise,  and  sidewise. 
Shallow,  flat  pans,  twelve  by  twenty  inches,  made  of 
tin  or  galvanized  iron,  or  boards  with  raised  edges  (such 
pans  cost  not  more  than  twenty  cents  each)  may  be 
made  so  that  each  pupil  can  have  one.  If  the  school- 
yard is  large  enough,  a  load  of  white  sand  may  be 
profitably  used  in  molding  natural  features.  Potters' 
clay  and  putty  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 


Suggestions  for  Elementary  Lessons  in 
Observation  or  Field  Lessons. 

NATURAL    FEATURES    OF    LAND. 

*TO  BE  DESCRIBED  ORALLY,  READ 
TO  BE  OBSERVED.  IN  BOOKS  AND  ILLUSTRAT- 

ED BY  PICTURES. 

1.  HILLS —  1.  MOUNTAINS — 

a  Forms  of.  a  Forms. 

b  Summit,  top.  b  Volcanoes. 

c  Base.  c  Snow    and    ice    upon 

d  Foot.  glaciers. 

e  Bottom.  d  Vegetation. 

/  Slopes.  e  Animals. 


*  The  advantages  for  observations  differ  so  in  different  localities  that  it  is, 
of  course,  impossible  to  make  anything  like  a  correct  classification  of  objects 
to  be  observed  and  objects  to  be  described  by  the  teacher. 


146 


HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 


g  Causes  of  hills. 
h  Materials  of  which 

hills  are  made. 
i  Uses  of  hills. 
j  Hills      of     different 

shapes. 
k  Cliffs,  bluffs,  made 

by  erosion. 

2.  CHAINS  OF  HILLS — 

a  Forms  of. 

b  Eanges. 

c  Kidges. 

d  Combs. 

e  Crests. 

/Passes. 

(j  Slopes. 

h  Plateaus. 

i  Terraces. 

j  Causes  of. 

k  Materials. 

I  Uses. 

in  Drainage. 

n  Washing  of  soil  for 

land  below. 
o  Health,     purer    air 

on  heights. 


/  Peaks. 

g  Precipices. 

h  Upheaval. 

i  Materials. 

j  Uses. 

k  Show  pictures  of,  and 

describe    a    few  high 

mountains. 

2.  SYSTEMS  OF  MOUNTAINS — 

a  Chains. 
b  Kanges. 

c  Sierras  and  Cordilleras. 
d  Slopes. 
e  Plateaus. 

/Passes,  gaps,  and  gor- 
ges. 

g  Kavines. 
h  Canons. 
i  Snow. 
j  Glaciers. 
k  Cold  heights. 
I  Water  partings. 
m  Clouds,    condensation 

of  vapor. 
n  Materials. 
o  Uses. 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE. 


147 


p  Outlook. 


3.  GRADUAL  SLOPES — 
a  Plains. 
b  Valleys. 
c  Prairies. 
d  Marshes. 
e  Bogs. 
/  Swamps. 
g  How      swamps      are 

made. 
h  Water     flows     slowly 

through  lowlands. 
i  How    wet    lands     are 

drained. 
j  Swamps  become   firm 

land  naturally. 


p  Describe,  mold  and 
show  pictures  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains,  An- 
des, Alps  and  Him- 
alayas. 

3.  GREAT  PLAINS — 

a  Prairies. 

b  Steppes. 

c  Savannahs. 

d  Forests. 

e  Grassy  plains. 

/  Deserts. 

g  Great  valleys. 

h  Causes  and  uses. 

i  Describe  the  three  great 
plains  of  the  world, 
in  South  America, 
North  America  and 
Eurasia. 


DRAINAGE. 

1.  FORMS  OF  SURFACE  WATER —     1.  BODIES  OF  WATER — 

a  Eivers.  a  Kivers. 

b  Brooks.  b  Lakes. 

c  Creeks.  c  Amazon, 
d  Sources.  Nile. 


148 


HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 


e  Springs o 
/Ponds. 
g  Lakes. 
h  Channels. 
i  Currents. 
j  Banks. 
k  Beds. 
I  Windings, 
m  Islands  in. 
n  Tributaries. 
o  Branches. 
p  Eapids. 
q  Waterfalls. 
r  Causes  of. 
s  Uses  of. 


d  Underground  reservoirs 

e  Intermittent  springs. 

/  Caves,  Mammoth. 

g  Artesian  wells,  Petro- 
leum and  Gas  wells. 

h  Artificial  drainage. 

i  Tiles,  ditches. 

j  Artificial  irrigation. 

Jc  Canals. 

I  Eivers  for  manufac- 
tures, Merrimack. 

m  For  commerce,  Missis- 
sippi, Volga. 

n  For  irrigation,  Nile,  La 
Platte,  San  Joaquin, 
Amoo  Daria. 

o  Causes  and  uses. 


2.  EIVER  BASINS — 

a  Slopes  that  form. 
b  Eight  slope. 
c  Left  slope. 
d  Meeting   of  slopes 
their  lower  edges. 
e  Water  parting. 
/Mouth  of  river. 
g  Source  slope. 


2.  EIVER  BASINS — 

Describe  basins  of  the 
a  Mississippi,    with    its 
prairies    and   mount- 
at  ains. 

b  Amazon  with  its  selvas. 
c  La  Platte,  pampas. 
d  Orinoco,  llanos. 
e  Po,  Alps  and  Delta. 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE. 


149 


h  Causes  of — 

Size  of  river. 

Length. 

Eapidity  of  current. 

Windings. 

Banks. 

Width. 

Depth. 

Silt  in  river. 

Delta. 

i  Uses  of  river  basins. 
j  Uses  of  river. 
k  Causes  of  ponds,  lakes, 

marshes,    swamps   in 

river  basin. 
I  Eeservoirs  of  rivers — 

Surface  waters,  forms 

of;   water  under  the 

surface;  ice  and  snow. 
m  Basins  of  tributaries. 


/  Indus,  Ganges,  plains, 
deltas,  Himalayas. 

g  Colorado,  canons. 

h  Danube  and  Magdale- 
na,  mountainous  basins. 

i  Nile,  bearing  soil  to  the 
plains  of  Egypt. 

j  Uses  of  river  basins  for 
building  railroads. 

k  Freshets  and  floods. 

I  Soil  of  river  basins. 

m  Boundaries  of  river 
basins. 

n  Great  lake  basins,  St. 
Lawrence,  Reservoirs  of 
the  Nile. 

o  Uses  of  water  in  soil ; 
relation  to  vegetation, 
sap,  minerals  in  wa- 
ter, blood  of  plants. 


3.  COAST  LINES— 

a  Shores. 
I  Coasts. 
c  Beaches. 
d  Cliffs. 
e  Crags. 


3.  KELATIONS  OF  BODIES  OF  WATER 
TO  BODIES  OF  LAND — 

a  Oceans. 

6  Waves. 

c  Tides. 

d  Ocean  currents. 

e  Wearing  coast. 


HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 


/  Projections, 
g  Peninsulas. 
h  Promontories. 
i  Capes. 

Points. 
k  Islands  broken  off  from 

peninsulas. 
I  Indentations, 
m  Bays.' 
n  Gulfs. 
o  Seas. 
p  Harbors. 
q  Inlets. 
r  Estuaries. 
s  Mouths  of  rivers. 
t  Deltas. 
u  Causes    of    all    these 

forms. 
v  Uses  of. 

w  Kegular  coast  lines. 
x  Irregular  coast  lines. 
y  Kelations  of  hills  and 

mountains    to     coast 

lines. 


/Building  coasts,  Atlan- 
tic coast  of  North 
America. 

g  Ice  bound  coasts. 

h  Effect  of  winds  on 
coasts ;  sand  dunes. 

i  Description  of  beaches, 
cliffs. 

.;  Peninsulas  of  Italy, 
Scandinavia,  Greece, 
Spain,  India,  Arabia, 
Malay,  peculiar  forme 
of. 

k  Continental  Islands, 
Great  Britain,  Japan 
Islands,  Madagascar. 

I  Oceanic  Islands,  A  tolls, 
Coral  Islands,  Florida. 

m  Describe  some  good 
harbors.  Protection 
from  ocean. 

n  Harbors  on  building 
coasts. 

o  Deltas  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, Po,  Ganges,  Ho- 
ang  Ho. 

p  Describe  Mediterranean 


NOTES — FOURTH    GRADE. 


4.  EROSION,  WEABING  AND 
BUILDING. 

a  Streets,  roads  and 
fields  after  a  shower 
or  rain  storm. 

b  Puddles. 

c  Streams. 

d  Cutting  or  wearing  of 
running  water. 

e  Silt  the  water  carries. 

/  Spreading  out  of  sedi- 
ment. 

g  How  pebbles  are  made ; 
history  of  a  pebble. 

h  Different  effects  of  run- 
ning water  upon  hard 
and  soft  soil. 

i  Causes  of  river  chan- 
nels. 

j  Eiver  beds. 

k  Banks. 

I  When  and  where  does 
water  carry  silt  ? 

m  When  and  where  does 


Sea,  Red  Sea,  Bering 
Strait,  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  Suez. 

4.  EROSION  AND  FORMATION 
OF  LAND. 

a  Forces  at  work  abrad- 
ing rock  and  soil,  car- 
rying and  spreading  it 
out. 

b  Eivers  and  brooks  cut- 
ting their  channel 
(vertically). 

c  Rivers  cutting  bottom 
lands  by  slowly  swing- 
ing (in  centuries)  from 
side  to  side,  horizon- 
tally. 

d  Bluffs  far  removed 
from  river,  formerly 
the  banks  of  the  river. 

e  Land  formed  by  silt 
deltas,  sand  bars,  allu- 
vial soil.  * 

/Action  of  the  wind  in 
forming  land — sand 
dunes,  snow  drifts. 

g  Action  of  the  wind  in 


152                HOW   TO   STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

it  deposit  silt?  erosion,  buttes. 

rc  Causes  of  sand  bars.  h  Niagara    Falls,    Zam- 

o  Causes  of  deltas.  besi     river,     Colorado 

p  Of  rapids  and  water-  canons. 

falls.  i  Nile,  making  rich  land 

q  What    forces,  besides  out  of  a  desert. 

water,  break  up  rocks  .;  Amoo  Daria,  Po,  Hoang- 

and  soil?  Ho. 

r  Eiver  dams,  effects  of.  k  Continents       wearing 

s  What  land  furnishes  a  away  and  lifted  up. 

river  with  silt  ? 
t  Causes  and  uses  of  all  these  forms. 


Lessons  Upon  Occupations. 

a  Agriculture.  c  Commerce. 

b  Manufacture.  d  Grazing. 

Lessons  upon  the  main  products  of  agriculture — 
cotton,  sugar,  rice,  grapevine,  palms,  bamboo,  coffee- 
plant,  tea-plant.  History  of  a  breakfast,  Swinton's 
Primary  Geography. 

Lessons  upon  building  and  use  of  railroads ;  upon 
ships  and  their  uses. 

Lessons  upon  useful  animals;  animals  used  for 
food — cattle,  sheep,  etc.  Animals  used  for  transporta- 
tion— horses,  camels,  elephant,  llama.  Domestic  ani- 
mals— dog,  cat,  etc. 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE.  153 

This  schedule  presents  a  formidable  array  of  work 
if  teachers  were  expected  to  teach  something  definite 
and  particular  about  each  subject,  and  especially  if 
the  teaching  is  to  be  followed  by  a  fixed  examination. 
This  plan  is  intended  to  suggest  means  of  teaching ;  to 
give  objects  for  observation  and  subjects  which  may  be 
described.  It  is  proposed  as  a  beginning  of  a  sys- 
tematic teaching  of  geography,  and  the  objects  and 
subjects  are  to  be  continued  throughout  the  course. 
The  demand  for  observation  and  inference  should 
always  be  commensurate  with  the  pupil's  powers. 
Descriptions,  by  reading  or  by  the  teacher,  should  only 
be  given  as  they  stimulate  curiosity  and  arouse  inter- 
est. Under  these  considerations  there  is  no  danger  of 
over-crowding. 

Plan  of  lessons  upon  hills.  We  will  suppose  that 
the  pupils  have  had  a  "field  lesson"  upon  a  hill  or  hills. 

1.  Have  pupils  take  their  molding  pans  and  mold 
the  hill,  each  pupil  expressing  his  own  thought. 

Let  pupils  criticise  each  others,  work.  How  high 
is  the  hill  ?  How  long  ?  Describe  the  hill.  Let  the 
teacher  draw  a  profile  of  the  hill  on  the  board.  What 
do  you  call  this  part  (pointing  to  summit)  ?  What  other 
name  ?  What  did  you  see  from  the  top  of  the  hill  ? 
What  part  is  this  (pointing  to  base)  ?  What  other  name  ? 
(foot,  bottom.)  What  do  you  find  between  the  summit 
and  base  ?  How  many  slopes  has  this  hill  ?  What  kind 


154  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

of  slopes  has  this  hill,  steep,  abrupt,  gradual  ?  Grade 
of  inclination?  The  words  height,  elevation,  altitudes, 
ascent,  descent,  acclivity,  declivity,  depression,  may  be  in- 
troduced in  descriptions.  Have  pupils  draw  a  profile 
of  the  hill.  Have  them  draw  a  map  of  the  hill  with  a 
little  of  the  surrounding  country.  Write  all  new  words 
upon  the  board,  and  have  pupils  write  a  description  of 
the  hill.  Have  pupils  tell  all  the  uses  of  the  hill ; 
coast  on,  etc.  Describe  the  vegetation  of  the  hill,  and 
the  minerals  that  they  have  found.  Observe  horizon 
from  the  foot  and  then  from  the  top  of  the  hill.  Draw 
circles  representing  the  larger  and  smaller  horizon. 

What  to  tell  and  what  to  read.  When  pupils  are 
interested  in  describing  the  results  of  their  observations 
lead  them  to  tell  of  other  hills  and  landscapes  they  have 
seen  in  travels.  Tell  them  of  hills  and  mountains  you 
have  seen.  How  high  is  this  hill  ?  One  hundred  feet  ? 
How  high  would  it  be,  if  it  were  twice  as  high  as  it  is  now  ? 
Three  times?  Ten  times?  Twenty  times?  Draw  to 
a  scale  on  the  black-board.  There  are  mountains 
that  reach  away  above  the  clouds.  If  you  were  on 
one  you  could  see  the  clouds  beneafh  your  feet.  When 
it  lightened  you  would  see  the  flash  below  you.  The 
tops  of  high  mountains  are  very  cold.  Why  are  they 
cold  ?  They  are  nearer  the  sun  than  you  are.  On  the 
summits  of  some  mountains  there  is  ice  and  snow  all 
the  time,  and  on  some  mountains  there  are  rivers  of  ice. 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  155 

Eivers  of  ice  are  called  glaciers.  Some  glaciers  are 
found  in  the  United  States.  Where  ?  There  is  a  curious 
way  of  telling  howliigh  mountains  are.  Here  is  the 
instrument  (showing  barometer)  with  which  elevations 
are  measured.  How  do  you  think  it  is  done  ?  I  am 
told  that  beans  cannot  be  boiled  upon  the  summits  of 
very  high  mountains.  Why?  When  people  go  up  in 
a  balloon  they  find  it  very  cold.  Why?  What  is  a 
cloud  ?  What  makes  clouds  move  ?  Draw  profile  of  a 
mountain  and  a  cloud  near  the  top.  Did  you  ever  see, 
on  a  hot  day,  a  pitcher  with  ice-water  in  it  ?  What  were 
on  the  outside  of  the  pitcher?  Where  did  the  drops 
come  from  ?  Is  there  water  in  this  air  ?  How  is  the 
water  in  the  air  changed  so  that  you  can  see  it  ?  How 
is  the  vapor  in  the  air  changed  to  drops  of  water  ?  Now, 
if  the  clouds,  which  you  can  see,  which  are  composed  of 
vapor,  were  driven  (what  would  drive  them  ?)  over  this 
mountain  (pointing  to  profile),  what  would  happen? 
Where  would  the  rain  go  ?  Upon  which  side  of  the 
mountain  would  it  fall  ?  What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween rain  and  snow?  Kain  and  hail?  When  is 
vapor  frozen  into  snow?  When  is  rain  frozen  into 
hail?  Why  do  people  climb  high  mountains?  What 
are  the  dangers  in  climbing  high  mountains?  Tell  a 
story  of  travelers  in  the  Alps  or  Andes.  Some  persons 
cannot  ascend  very  high  mountains  because  the  blood 
rushes  to  their  faces  and  sometimes  comes  through 


156  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  skin.  Why  ?  What  difference,  except  difference  in 
warmth,  is  there  in  the  air  on  mountains  and  the  air 
on  low  plains?  Why  is  the  air  lighter  on  mountain 
tops  ?  Do  not  answer  these  questions  for  pupils,  but  let 
them  try  to  discover  the  reasons. 

Pictures  of  scenery  should  be  used  in  connection 
with  these  lessons.  Pictures  may  be  cut  from  illus- 
trated papers  and  mounted  on  cardboard.  Teachers 
can  easily  procure  a  large  number  of  them.  Show 
pictures  of  hills  and  mountains  in  connection  with 
lessons  upon  them ;  have  pupils  describe  the  pictures 
orally  and  in  writing.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  furnish 
Shaler's  geological  models  and  pictures,  showing  the 
effects  of  erosion ;  they  are  excellent  for  the  study  of 
changes  in  the  earth's  surface. 

Hill  and  plain.  After  a  field  lesson  have  pupils 
mold  and  draw  a  hill  or  several  hills  (a  chain),  sloping 
down  into  a  plain.  Draw  a  profile  of  a  hill  and  plain. 
What  kind  of  a  slope  is  this  (pointing  to  slope  of  hill)  ? 
An  abrupt  slope ;  a  steep  slope.  What  do  you  think 
the  angle  of  inclination  is  ?  (Pupils  should  be  taught 
about  angles  in  lessons  upon  form.) 

Which  is  the  greater  angle  (pointing  to  the  other 
side  of  the  hill)  ?  Where  does  this  slope  stop  (pointing 
to  the  side  of  hill  toward  the  plain)  ?  Does  it  stop  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill?  Is  the  surface  of  the  plain 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  157 

level  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  slope  of  the 
plain  and  the  slope  of  the  hill  ?  What  would  be  the 
result  if  the  plain  were  level,  that  is,  did  not  slope  at 
all  ?  What  if  the  surface  of  the  earth  were  level  and 
there  were  no  hills  or  slopes  ?  Lead  pupils  to  see  that 
one  of  the  principal  uses  of  slopes  is  to  drain  the  land. 
Where  does  the  water  go  when  it  falls  from  the  clouds  ? 
Where  does  the  water  go  that  does  not  run  off  on  the 
top  or  surface  of  the  ground  ?  How  far  down  does  the 
water  go  ?  When  does  it  stop  in  the  ground  ?  Where 
does  it  go  then  ?  Where  does  it  come  out  of  the  ground  ? 
What  is  the  water  called  where  it  runs  out  of  the 
ground  ?  Why  does  it  run  out  ?  What  are  mineral 
springs  ?  Why  does  some  water  have  salt  in  it  ?  Sul- 
phur? Iron?  What  is  the  color  of  water  that  has 
much  iron  in  it?  What  is  a  well?  How  are  wells 
made  ?  What  is  the  use  of  a  well  ?  What  is  the  dif- 
ference between  a  spring  and  a  well  ?  Tell  pupils  about 
artesian  wells.  In  the  Santa  Clara  valley,  California, 
the  farmers  bore  deep  artesian  wells  to  water  the  land. 
There  is  very  little  rain,  and  they  could  not  raise  crops, 
you  know,  without  water.  Why  ?  Every  morning  the 
water  rises  in  the  wells  to  the  tops,  and  then  overflows. 
The  water  flows  softly  over  the  land  and  gives  the  thirsty 
plants  plenty  of  water.  Then  the  water  goes  down  in 
the  wells,  and  does  not  rise  until  early  the  next  morn- 
ing. How  does  the  water  come  to  these  wells  when  there 


158  HOW   TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

is  no  rain  ?  There  are  high  mountains  all  around  the 
Santa  Clara  valley.  When  land  is  watered  in  this  way 
it  is  called  artificial  irrigation.  Some  farmers  say  that 
they  like  irrigation  better  than  rain ;  would  you  ?  Why  ? 
Why  do  you  think  some  farmers  like  it  better  than 
rain  ?  When  we  study  river  basins  we  shall  learn  how 
rivers  are  used  to  irrigate  land.  I  must  tell  you  about 
the  Desert  of  Sahara ;  what  is  a  desert  ?  This  desert  is 
a  vast  extent  of  land  upon  which  no  rain  falls  (why  ?) ; 
there  are  great  piles,  hills  and  mountains  of  sand,  and 
hills  and  mountains  of  rock;  the  sand  is  constantly 
moving.  What  moves  the  sand  ?  Travelers  are  obliged 
to  cross  this  desert.  What  is  the  name  of  the  desert  ? 
(write  the  name.)  In  some  places  in  this  great  desert 
there  are  green  places;  green  grass  and  palm  trees. 
What  makes  such  places  green  ?  Where  does  the  water 
come  from?  What  is  the  name  of  the  place  in  the 
desert  where  there  is  water  and  green  grass  ?  Oasis. 
How  do  you  think  the  water  comes  to  an  oasis  when 
there  is  no  rain  ?  Travelers,  with  great  loads  of  mer- 
chandise to  sell,  travel  across  this  desert.  What  carry 
the  loads  of  merchandise  ?  Ships.  Eeal  ships  cannot 
sail  on  the  sand.  What  kind  of  ships  do  you  suppose 
they  are?  Ships  of  the  desert  they  are  called.  Here 
is  a  picture  of  one  (showing  a  picture  of  a  camel.)  Why 
do  these  travelers  use  camels  to  cross  the  desert  ?  Tell 
them  how  and  why  a  camel  can  go  so  long  without 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE.  159 

water.  Some  men  have  bored  artesian  wells  in  this 
great  desert,  and  the  water  gushing  out  has  made — 
what  ?  An  artificial  oasis.  Where  did  the  water  come 
from? 

Use  of  water  in  the  soil.  What  are  pebbles  ? 
What  is  gravel?  What  is  sand?  Loam?  Clay? 
How  are  soils  made  ?  All  soils  are  made  of  abraded  or 
ground-up  rock.  What  is  vegetable  mold  ?  Tell  pupils 
about  the  glaciers  and  how  they  grind  up  rocks ;  how 
they  break  off  boulders  from  mountains;  how  these 
great  ice  rivers  carry  and  deposit  them  in  the  plains 
below.  Get  pupils  to  tell  you  of  all  the  ways  earth 
and  rocks  are  moved  by  natural  forces ;  ice,  frost,  air, 
winds,  rivers,  rains,  etc.  What  would  you  find  under- 
neath the  soil  if  you  should  dig  down  ?  Did  you  ever 
see  places  where  men  had  dug  right  through  hills? 
Eailroad  cuts.  The  rocks  form  the  bones  or  frame- 
work of  the  earth.  What  is  the  flesh?  What  the 
blood?  Where  it  rains,  you  say,  some  of  the  water 
runs  off  on  the  surface,  and  some  goes  down  into  the 
ground.  What  if  the  top  of  the  ground,  or  the  surface, 
were  hard  as  steel,  where  would  all  the  water  go  then  ? 
None  would  go  down  into  the  earth  or  soil ;  it  would  all 
run  off.  What  good  does  the  water  do  in  the  ground  ? 
How  do  plants  take  up  water  ?  How  should  begin  the 
study  of  the  wonders  of  plant  hairs,  and  how  they  take 
in  water.  Does  water  nourish  plants  ?  Why  ?  Why 


l6o  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

not?  What  is  the  water  in  plants  called?  How 
many  kinds  of  sap  have  you  ever  seen  ?  What  is  done 
with  the  sap  of  maple  trees?  Where  does  the  sugar 
come  from  ?  Is  it  a  part  of  the  water  ?  Have  you  ever 
tasted  bitter  sap  ?  Why  do  some  plant  hairs  or  rootlets 
take  up  sweet  sap,  and  some  plants  bitter  sap  ?  How 
do  the  roots  know  what  kind  of  sap  to  take  up  ?  Lead 
pupils  to  know  that  the  water,  as  it  creeps  through  the 
soil  down  a  slope,  takes  little  particles  of  minerals  with 
it,  and  carries  these  particles  to  the  plant  hairs ;  these 
hairs  take  just  what  they  need  for  the  growth  of  the 
particular  tree  to  which  they  belong.  Some  plants 
grow  in  water ;  (what  plants  ?)  Can  all  plants  grow  in 
water  ?  Why  not  ?  Does  the  water  make  the  plants 
which  live  in  it  grow?  How  are  plants  made  to  grow 
well  in  a  garden  ?  What  does  your  father  put  on  the 
ground  to  make  plants  grow? 

What  kind  of  plants  grow  in  marshy  places? 
What  is  a  marsh  ?  What  kind  of  plants  grow  in  rich 
black  soil  ?  In  sandy  soil  ?  What  is  poor  soil  ?  What 
is  fertile  soil?  When  do  farmers  and  gardeners  put 
fertilizers  upon  land  ?  Take  a  California  Eesurrection 
Plant  that  is  to  all  appearance  dead  and  dried  up;  put 
it  in  a  saucer  of  water  after  your  pupils  have  carefully 
observed  it ;  then  let  them  watch  the  wonderful  process 
of  its  coming  to  life.  After  it  has  become  green  take 
it  out  and  let  it  dry.  When  the  pupils'  curiosity  has 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   DIRECTIONS.  l6l 

been  fully  aroused,  let  them  plant  seeds  in  different 
kinds  of  soils  and  watch  the  changes.  In  connection 
with  the  nourishment  of  plants  by  mineral  substances, 
lead  pupils  to  discover  the  use  of  air  to  plants ;  how 
plants  breathe.  Leaves  are  the  lungs  of  a  plant  or  tree. 
Explain. 

River  basins.  The  formation  of  a  clear  concept 
of  a  river  basin  is  of  very  great  importance.  It  is  the 
organized  unit  of  drainage.  In  it  may  be  found  chains 
of  hills  and  mountains,  plains,  and  all  the  surface 
forms  which  constitute  a  continent.  Next  to  the  analy- 
sis of  large  slopes  the  division  of  a  continent  into 
river  basins  is  the  simplest  and  easiest ;  it  explains  the 
organism  of  a  continent.  After  lessons  have  been  care- 
fully given  upon  hills,  plains,  mountains,  slopes,  etc., 
the  river  basin  should  be  taught.  There  are  many  ways 
of  beginning  this  work;  the  plan  here  suggested  may 
be  far  from  the  best  one. 

What  is  a  river  ?  How  large  is  any  river  that  you 
have  ever  seen?  How  wide  is  it?  Where  does  the 
water  come  from  that  makes  ^le  river?  Springs, 
branches,  tributaries,  ponds,  lakes.  Where  does  the 
water  come  from  that  makes  a  spring  ?  A  tributary  ? 
A  pond  or  lake  ?  Question  pupils  so  that  they  will  dis- 
cover that  the  main  reservoir  is  the  soil  or  land ;  that 
the  water  percolates  through  the  soil,  and  that  it  comes 
to  the  surface  when  a  hard  strata  of  rock  or  soil  crops 


162  HOW  TO  STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

out,  or  comes  out  of  the  ground.  From  how  much  land 
does  a  river  receive  water?  How  much  land  does  a 
river  drain  ?  When  the  rain  ceases  to  fall  on  the  land, 
why  does  not  the  river  dry  up?  Where  does  a  river 
get  its  water  during  a  long  drought  ?  Some  brooks  and 
some  rivers  do  dry  up.  The  land  which  a  river  drains 
is  called  a  river  basin.  How  large  is  a  river  basin? 
"Where  does  the  water  begin  to  flow  toward  a  river? 
What  causes  water  to  flow  toward  a  river?  From  how 
many  places  does  water  begin  to  flow  toward  a  river? 
Take  your  pans  and  mold  a  river  basin.  Show  me  how 
much  land  a  river  drains.  Show  me  the  points  from 
which  the  water  begins  to  flow  toward  the  river.  All 
the  points  taken  together  in  a  river  basin  from  which 
water  begins  to  flow  through  the  soil  toward  a  river  is 
called  the  water-parting.  What  is  a  water-parting? 
How  wide  is  a  water-parting  ?  A  water-parting  is  a  line 
and  has  no  width.  Has  any  line  width  ?  How  many 
water-partings  has  a  river  basin  ?  Lead  pupils  to  see 
that  the  water-parting  of  a  river  basin  is  one  line.  If 
they  say  that  there  are  two  water-partings,  ask  them  to 
show  where  one  of  tne  lines  begins  and  ends.  Show 
this  upon  the  molded  river  basin.  Have  pupils  show 
the  water-parting  upon  the  board.  How  is  your  river 
basin  bounded  ?  How  is  yours  bounded  (asking  another 
pupil)?  How  are  all  river  basins  bounded?  Does  a 
water  parting  bound  a  river  basin  entirely  ?  What  else 
bounds  it?  Mouth. 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE.  163 

Have  pupils  bound  natural  divisions  by  natural  lines. 
There  are  (from  their  positions)  three  kinds  of  natural 
lines  :  (1)  Lines  formed  by  slopes  meeting  at  their  upper 
edges ;  (2)  lines  formed  by  slopes  meeting  at  their  lower 
edges ;  (3)  lines  formed  by  slopes  of  -land  meeting  sur- 
faces of  bodies  of  water  (coast  lines).  Where  will  you 
find  the  river  in  your  river  basin  ?  Why  do  you  find  it 
there  ?  Trace  the  line  over  which  the  river  flows.  Why 
must  the  river  flow  over  that  line  ?  Could  it  flow  over 
any  other  line?  What  do  you  find  between  the  river 
and  the  water-parting  on  this  side  (pointing  to  slope  on 
the  right  side  of  river,  i.  e.,  right  looking  down  the  river)  ? 
What  do  you  find  on  the  left  side  between  the  river  and 
the  water-parting  ?  How  many  slopes  has  a  river  basin  ? 
A  right  slope  and  a  left  slope.  What  forms  the  line 
over  which  the  river  flows  ?  The  meeting  of  the  right 
and  left  slope  at  their  lower  edges.  Bound  the  right 
slope.  The  left  slope.  What  do  you  call  the  land  over 
which  a  river  flows  ?  Why  does  a  river  flow  over  its 
bed?  Because  the  bed  slopes.  When  does  the  river 
bed  begin  to  slope?  How  far  does  it  slope?  This 
slope  or  inclination  of  the  river  bed  we  will  call  the 
source  slope.  How  long  is  the  source  slope?  Does  the 
source  slope  begin  at  the  source  of  the  river  or  at  the 
water-parting?  How  long  is  the  source  slope?  Two 
slopes  (right  and  left  slope)  make  up  the  entire  river 
basin;  to  which  slope  does  the  source  slope  belong? 


164  HOW  TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

Does  it  belong  to  either  or  both?  How  many  river 
basins  are  there  in  a  river  basin  ?  Mold  the  basin  of 
a  river  which  has  several  tributaries?  The  teacher 
should  mold  a  river  basin  upon  the  large  molding  board. 
Have  pupils  draw  maps  of  river  basins  from  the  molded 
forms ;  put  in  water-parting,  river,  tributaries  and  the 
body  of  water  into  which  the  main  river  flows. 

Different  kinds  of  river  basins.  To  be  molded  by 
pupils : 

1.  Mold  a  river  basin  in  which  the  right  slope  is 
longer  than  the  left  slope. 

2.  The  left  slope  is  longer  than  the  right. 

3.  The  upper  part  of  left  slope  consists  of  a  chain 
or  system  of  mountains  and  the  lower  parts  plains. 

4.  The   upper  part   of  right  slope  consists  of  a 
chain  or   system    of  mountains  and   the   lower   parts 
plains. 

5.  The    upper    parts   of  both    slopes    consist    of 
chains  of  mountains  and  the  lower  parts  of  a  plain. 

C.  The  upper  part  of  the  source  slope  is  mount- 
ainous with  no  other  mountains  on  the  upper  parts  of 
right  and  left  slopes. 

7.  A  river  basin  in  which  there  are  no  mountains. 

8.  A  river  basin  in  which  the  river  flows  its  entire 
length  in  one  general  direction. 

9.  A  river  basin  in  which  the  river  flows  for  long 
distance  in  two  general  directions. 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  165 

10.  A  river   basin  which   is  wholly   inside  of  a 
system  of   mountains. 

11.  A  river  basin  in  which  there  is  land  higher 
than  the  highest  part  of  the  water-parting. 

12.  Mold  a   system  of  river  basins ;  i.  e.,  river 
basins  that  form  one  slope,  which  is  drained  into  one 
body  of  water. 

A  valley  is  the  lower  part  of  the  depression  which 
forms  the  river  basin.  Draw  each  form  ivhich  is  molded. 

Number.  In  all  molding  and  drawing  lead  the 
pupils  to  imagine  the  length  and  width  of  river  basins  ; 
the  width  of  slopes  ;  the  length  and  width  of  the  river ; 
the  heights  of  water-partings,  etc.  This  practice  will 
lead  them  to  imagine  lengths,  areas  and  heights  of  land 
that  form  continents. 

Rivers.  Upon  what  does  the  size  of  a  river  de- 
pend ?  How  can  there  be  a  very  large  river  basin  and 
a  comparatively  small  river  ?  What  is  the  effect  upon 
the  size  of  a  river  if  the  soil  of  the  basin  is  very  sandy  ? 
If  it  is  a  clayey  or  hard  soil  ?  What  effect  upon  the 
river  has  a  woody  basin  or  a  basin  covered  with  forests  ? 
What  effect  upon  a  river  has  the  removal  of  forests  ? 
How  do  roots  affect  the  soil  ?  What  effect  have  roots 
upon  the  percolation  of  water?  In  Nevada  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  were  once  covered 
with  magnificent  pine  trees.  Gold  and  silver  in  great 


1 66  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

quantities  were  discovered  at  a  place  now  called  Vir- 
ginia City.  In  order  to  sink  the  shafts  and  open  the 
drifts  vast  numbers  of  pines  were  used  to  support  or 
prop  these  openings  in  the  mountain  sides.  The  result 
is  that  the  flanks  of  the  mountains  were  robbed  of  their 
pine  forests.  The  water  that  falls  from  the  clouds, 
condensed  by  the  cold  tops  of  the  mountains,  instead 
of  sinking  into  the  soil  and  being  held  by  the  strong 
roots  of  the  trees,  nourishing  them,  and  then  slowly 
working  its  way  to  the  valleys  below  to  feed  the 
brooks,  lakes  or  rivers,  now  dashes  down  without  re- 
straint upon  the  yielding  soil,  tears  it  from  its  place, 
ploughs  deep  furrows  in  the  unprotected  sides  of  the 
mountain  and  hurries  sand  and  gravel  boulders  down 
to  the  valleys  below.  During  one  storm  great  fields 
were  covered  deep  with  sand  and  stone,  brought 
from  the  mountain  sides  by  the  rushing  waters,  and 
where  once  were  fertile  lands  are  now  only  barren 
sand  wastes.  Did  you  ever  see  any  cuts  in  the  ground 
made  by  water  ?  Where  ?  Why  are  trees  often  planted 
on  the  banks  of  rivers?  Why  do  you  often  find  the 
grass  and  bushes  very  wet  with  dew?  How  is  moisture 
affected  by  foliage  ?  Why  shouldn't  a  large  number  of 
trees  be  planted  close  to  dwellings  ?  Why  does  water 
flow  in  a  river  ?  What  moves  it  ?  What  would  be  the 
result  if  there  was  no  source  slope  ?  What  slope  de- 
termines the  length  of  a  river?  What  determines  the 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  167 

rapidity  with  which  the  river  flows  ?  How  does  u  flow 
over  an  abrupt  slope  ?  Over  a  gradual  slope  ?  Illus- 
trate gravitation.  Suppose  a  river  had  the  same  grade 
of  slope  all  the  way  from  its  source  to  its  moutht  where 
would  the  water  flow  the  fastest  ?  Where  the  slowest  ? 
Why?  What  is  the  bed  of  a  river?  What  line  is 
always  in  the  bed  of  a  river  ?  The  line  formed  by  the 
two  slopes,  which  make  the  river  basin,  meeting  at  their 
lower  edges.  This  is  constantly  changing  by  the  action 
of  running  water.  What  does  a  stream  do  when  it  comes 
to  a  slope  or  obstruction  which  is  opposed  to  the  general 
source  slope?  Illustrate  by  drawing  and  molding. 
When  will  the  water  flow  over  the  opposing  slope? 
Where  will  the  water  flow  over  the  obstruction  ?  What 
body  of  water  will  be  formed  above  the  opposing  slope  ? 
What  is  a  lake  ?  How  are  lakes  formed  in  the  courses 
of  rivers  ?  Tell  pupils  about  the  lakes  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence basin.  Where  are  lakes  formed  in  the  course  of 
rivers  ?  Many,  many  years  ago  when  rivers  first  began 
to  run,  most  of  the  rivers  were  strings  of  lakes,  formed 
in  the  valleys  or  lower  parts  of  the  river  basins.  Some 
rivers  like  the  St.  Lawrence  are  like  that  now.  Grad- 
ually, in  very  many  years,  these  strings  of  lakes  changed 
to  one  continuous  river.  Many  cities  are  now  resting 
upon  what  used  to  be  the  bottoms  of  dried  up  lakes  (like 
Dayton,  Ohio),  and  many  fertile  fields  with  rich  crops 
of  grain  were  once  under  the  deep  waters  of  large  lakes. 


1 68  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

There  are  two  ways  by  which  a  lake  .in  the  course  of  a 
river  may  change  into  a  river  and  leave  its  bottom  dry 
land.  I  could  tell  you  about  these  ways,  but  I  am  sure 
you  would  like  very  much  to  discover  them  for  your- 
selves. Here  is  a  molded  river  basin,  and  here  in  this 
part  of  the  course  you  see,  what?  An  obstruction,  a 
slope  opposed  to  the  general  inclination  of  the  source 
slope.  What  will  the  water  of  the  river  do  here  ? 
When  will  it  flow  over  the  obstruction  ?  Where  will  it 
flow  over  the  obstruction  ?  What  does  a  river  do  to  the 
soil  and  rock  everywhere  it  flows  ?  Now  tell  me  one 
way  by  which  the  lake  might  be  drained  ?  The  river 
cuts  its  own  way  when  it  does  not  find  a  way  already 
cut  for  it.  How  long  would  it  take  to  cut  through  this 
obstruction,  do  you  think  ?  Sometimes  the  obstruction 
is  rock,  sometimes  clay,  or  other  hard  soil.  Can  a 
river  cut  through  rock?  Tell  pupils  of  the  Colorado. 
What  does  a  river  leave  on  either  side  where  it  cuts 
a  channel  through  an  obstruction  ?  A  river  makes  its 
own  banks.  How  far  down  into  the  earth  would  the 
water  have  to  cut  in  order  to  change  a  lake  into  a  river  ? 
What  colors  the  waters  of  a  river?  The  Missouri 
river,  where  it  pours  its  waters  into  the  Mississippi,  is 
of  a  rich  coffee  color.  The  water  of  the  Mississippi 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  is  black.  Where  does 
the  earth  come  from  that  colors  the  water  of  rivers  ? 
Where  does  the  earth  go  that  a  river  cuts  out  between 


NOTES— FOURTH  GRADE.  169 

its  banks  ?  Tell  me  the  different  ways  by  which  soil  is 
carried  into  a  river.  The  soil-earth  or  ground- up  rock 
in  a  river  is  called  silt.  Some  rivers  carry  a  great  deal 
of  it,  and  other  rivers  very  little.  When  a  river  carries 
very  little  silt  its  waters  are  clear.  Take  a  glass  of 
water  in  which  there  is  silt  (how  can  you  tell  whether 
there  is  silt  in  the  water?)  and  let  it  stand  a  while. 
What  do  you  notice?  Where  does  a  river  carry  its 
silt?  When  does  the  silt  settle  down  on  the  river  bed? 
Why  is  not  the  silt  deposited  in  rapid  water  ?  Why 
does  silt  settle  to  the  bottom  in  still  or  slowly  moving 
water?  Silt  deposited  by  any  body  of  water  is  called 
sediment.  Sediment,  when  deposited  upon  level  beds, 
is  usually  arranged  in  layers — stratified — why  ?  Notice 
the  action  of  water  after  a  rain  storm.  How  is  the 
sand,  carried  by  water,  spread  out?  Now,  we  will 
come  back  to  the  obstructions  (opposing  slopes)  a  river 
finds  in  its  course.  What  is  one  way  that  a  river, 
spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  lake,  changes  back  to  a 
narrow  river  again  ?  Can  you  think  of  another  ? 

Suppose  a  rapid  river,  filled  with  silt,  meets  an  op- 
posing slope;  what  would  become  of  most  of  the  silt? 
Why  would  the  silt  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  lake  ? 
If  the  river  could  not  cut  through  the  obstruction,  how 
would  the  bottom  of  the  lake  be  changed  to  dry  land  in 
such  a  river  ?  What  is  a  freshet  or  flood  ?  How  are 
freshets  caused?  Where  do  they  generally  occur? 


170  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

How  do  they  change  a  river?  Why  does  the  water 
spread  out  over  the  land  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  river 
does  it  keep  between  its  original  banks ?  Why  does  the 
river  widen  above  the  banks?  Owing  to  the  great 
quantity  of  water  the  river,  between  high  banks,  be- 
comes choked,  and  as  the  flood  cannot  get  through  in 
the  usual  way,  it  spreads  out.  What  damage  does  a 
freshet  do?  What  good  does  it  do?  It  makes  land 
richer ;  how  ?  Sometimes  it  makes  land  poorer ;  why  ? 
The  story  of  the  Nile.  I  will  tell  you  a  story  of  a 
great  nation  which  could  never  have  existed  had  it  not 
been  for  the  sediment  deposited  every  year  by  a  great 
river.  This  (mold)  land  you  have  often  heard  and  read 
of;  it  is  the  land  of  Egypt.  The  great  nation  was 
that  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Here  is  a  map  of  the 
continent  of  Africa  (drawing  it  on  the  board),  and  here 
is  the  great  river  that  rises  under  the  hot  sun  of  the 
equator  in  these  two  great  lakes,  the  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  the  Albert  Nyanza.  For  whom  were  these  lakes 
named  ?  It  took  a  very,  very  long  time  to  find  where 
the  great  river  really  does  rise.  The  river  flows  from 
the  lakes  toward  the  north  for  more  than  three  thou- 
sand miles  to  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Here  (pointing) 
are  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia;  they  are  very  high 
and  very  rugged.  From  these  mountains  come  down 
two  great  rivers,  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara,  which 
joins  the  Nile  in  its  northward  course.  For  twelve  hun- 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  171 

dred  miles  this  wonderful  river  flows  through  a  great, 
rainless  desert  of  rolling,  shifting  sand,  the  Desert  of 
Sahara.  For  1,200  miles  the  Nile  does  not  receive  one 
drop  of  water  from  the  clouds  or  from  its  basin ;  indeed, 
it  has  no  basin  all  that  long  distance.  The  river  is 
much  smaller  at  its  mouth  than  it  is  1,200  miles  from 
the  place  where  it  pours  its  waters  into  the  great  inland 
sea.  How  does  the  Nile  lose  its  water?  Now  comes 
the  wonderful  part  of  the  story.  On  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia  (here)  it  rains  very,  very  hard  once  a  year ; 
torrents  of  rain  plough  and  furrow  the  ground,  make 
deep  cuts  in  it,  and  carry  enormous  spoils  of  earth 
down  into  the  brooks ;  the  brooks  carry  it  to  other 
tributaries,  and  the  Blue  Nile  and  Atbara  carry  the  im- 
mense quantity  of  silt  brought  to  them,  to  the  Nile,  and 
the  Nile  in  turn  takes  it  over  cataracts  (what  are  cat- 
aracts ?)  to  the  desert.  The  swollen  river  spreads  out 
its  floods  over  the  land,  and  the  land  becomes  nearly 
the  ricjiest  in  the  ivorld.  Great  crops  of  wheat  and  cot- 
ton grow  upon  it.  Thousands  of  years  ago  a  people 
settled  there,  and  became  a  mighty  nation.  The  Phar- 
aohs (kings)  built  the  famous  pyramids  close  by  the 
sands  of  the  desert  (here).  The  people  of  Egypt  almost 
worship  the  great  river,  which  they  call  Father  Nile. 
They  watch  eagerly  for  the  coming  of  the  yearly  flood, 
and  when  they  see  the  water  rising  they  shout  and 
sing  for  joy.  The  higher  it  rises  the  happier  they  be- 


172  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

come.     So  you  see  floods  are  sometimes  great  bless- 
ings. 

Delta,  sand-bars  and  building  land.  Some  of  the 
silt  is  spread  out  by  floods  over  the  plains  near  the 
river  banks,  and  some  is  taken  by  the  current  clear 
down  to  the  river's  mouth,  where  it  settles  and  forms 
land ;  the  land  formed  by  sediment  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  is  called  a  delta.  Tell  them  of  the  deltas  of  the 
Mississippi,  Ganges  and  Po.  Much  of  the  silt  is  car- 
ried out  into  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  where  it  is 
spread  out  in  layers,  and  after  a  long  time  is  hardened 
into  stone.  Some  of  the  silt  in  the  ocean  is  swept  by 
waves  and  tides  upon  the  coasts,  where  it  forms  sand- 
bars and  beaches.  Tell  about  the  Tide  Water  Eegion  in 
the  Southern  Atlantic  States.  Show  specimens  of  strati- 
fied rock,  and  call  attention  to  the  way  the  layers  were 
formed.  Also  stratified  rock  with  fossils,  showing  how 
the  shells  are  mixed  up  with  the  strata. 

Windings  of  a  river.  If  the  meeting  of  the  right 
and  left  slopes  formed  a  perfectly  straight  line,  what 
effect  would  that  have  upon  the  river  ?  There  is  no 
such  thing  in  nature.  Why  couldn't  such  a  river  be 
crossed  in  boats  ?  Why  would  the  current  of  such  be 
exceedingly  rapid?  What  effect  do  the  windings  or 
bendings  of  a  river  have  upon  the  rapidity  of  the  car- 
rent  ?  How  is  a  current  of  a  river  retarded  by  friction  ? 
What  is  friction?  Illustrate.  The  current  of  a  river 


NOTES — FOURTH   GRADE.  173 

is  seldom  in  the  center  of  the  stream ;  it  moves  gen- 
erally on  one  side  or  the  other,  crossing  over  at  a  bend. 
Why  does  it  cross  below  a  bend  ?  What  effect  has  a  cur- 
rent, flowing  on  one  side  of  a  river,  upon  the  land  near 
it?  (Upon  the  banks?)  Of  what  other  uses  are  the 
windings  of  a  river  except  to  retard  the  rapidity  of  its 
flow  ?  Navigation ;  irrigation.  A  river  that  winds  very 
much  is  sometimes  called  a  meandering  river.  This 
name  comes  from  the  river  Meander  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  Jordan  river  flows  200  miles  from  the  sea  of  Gal- 
ilee in  order  to  reach  the  Dead  Sea,  a  little  more  than 
sixty  miles.  Draw  maps  of  winding  rivers.  Some 
rivers  change  abruptly  the  general  direction  of  their 
courses — Columbia. 

Changing  tSie  line.  The  line  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  the  right  and  left  slopes  of  a  river  basin  is  con- 
stantly changing.  Where  is  this  line  always  to  be 
found  ?  The  river  always  flows  over  this  line  and  gen- 
erally the  current  flows  over  it.  We  have  found  that  a 
river  cuts  its  own  way  through  whatever  obstructions 
(opposing  slopes)  it  may  meet ;  it  not  only  cuts  its  way 
through  the  obstructions,  but  fills  up  the  lakes  or 
widened  river  bottoms  with  sediment.  A  river  cuts  its 
bed  down  rcri'izr.lly  in  forming  its  banks.  Illustrate  on 
molding  board.  A  river  very  often  changes  its  bed. 
How?  What  line  is  changed  when  the  river  bed  is 
changed  ? 


174  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  current  of  a  river  changes  very  often ;  steam, 
boat  pilots  are  obliged  to  watch  for  these  changes  with 
the  greatest  care ;  why  ?  A  river  current  is  generally 
eating  into  the  bank  nearest  it ;  it  cuts  away  the  oarth 
or  rock  and  carries  it  down  the  stream.  Thus,  yju  see, 
it  not  only  cuts  away  the  earth  in  its  bed  (vertically), but 
also  cuts  away  its  bank,  generally  on  on«  side  at  a 
time;  which  side?  The  river  wears  av/ay  (abrades) 
earth  in  two  directions ;  one  vertically  and  the  other 
from  side  to  side,  horizontally.  Illustrate  how  the  bot- 
tom lands  of  the  Illinois  river  and  tr>e  Mississippi  are 
formed  by  the  horizontal  movement  Some  rivers  make 
most  of  their  basins  by  erosion 

The  source  slope.  Eeviev  questions.  What  slope 
determines  the  length  of  a  river  ?  What  determines  the 
rapidity  of  the  current  ?  Where  will  the  current  be  swift  ? 
Where  very  slow?  Ho^  are  rapids,  cataracts  and  falls 
made  ?  What  is  the  difference  in  the  slope  of  a  river  bed 
between  rapids  and  Vails?  Illustrate  with  molding  and 
drawing.  Show  pictures  of  and  tell  pupils  about  Niagara 
Falls.  Describe  ^ow  the  rock  is  slowly  wearing  away ; 
show  pictures  of  the  steep  banks  below  the  falls,  and  ask 
how  they  werv  made.  What  will  be  the  result  when  the 
falls  cut  their  way  back  to  Lake  Erie  ?  Tell  pupils 
about  the  /alls  in  the  Zambesi,  the  cataracts  of  the 
Nile,  and  tne  Dalles  of  the  Columbia. 

Krvers  which  rise  in  highlands  rush  down  the  com- 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  175 

paratively  abrupt  slopes,  and  flow  slower  over  what  may 
be  called  the  middle  course,  and  still  more  slowly  over 
the  lowest  part  of  the  course.  Thus  most  rivers  have 
three  distinct  divisions  in  the  source  slope :  (1)  an 
upper  course,  where  the  current  is  rapid ;  (2)  a  middle 
course  in  which  the  current  is  slower  than  it  is 
in  the  upper  course ;  (3)  a  lower  course,  in  which 
the  river  creeps  over  a  very  slight  grade  of  surface  in- 
clination. Some  rivers  are  very  rapid  in  their  flow 
from  the  source  to  the  mouth,  while  others,  following 
gentle  inclinations  throughout  their  courses,  are,  there- 
fore, sluggish  all  the  way. 

Uses  of  rivers.  Tell  me  all  the  uses  of  rivers 
that  you  can  think  of.  .  Have  pupils  discover  such  uses. 
Manufacturing ;  navigation ;  furnishing  canals  used  for 
transportation  with  water ;  moving  logs ;  cutting  the 
earth  in  their  basins  so  that  railroads  can  be  easily 
built ;  irrigation ,  natural  and  artificial ;  water  supplies 
for  cities ;  preparing  land  for  cultivation ;  making  har- 
bors or  sea  coasts ;  furnishing  land  and  gravel  for  build- 
ing purposes  ;  furnishing  food  (fish) ;  cleansing  the  land 
by  carrying  off  impurities  ;  supplying  ice. 

Manufacturing.  What  kind  of  rivers  are  used  for 
manufacturing  ?  Which  course  of  a  river  (upper,  mid- 
dle, lower,)  is  generally  best  adapted  to  manufacturing 
purposes  ?  On  what  parts  of  a  river  are  mills,  factories 
and  other  manufactories  built?  Name  articles  that 


176  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

are  manufactured  by  machinery  driven  by  water  and 
steam.  Why  are  mills  and  factories  built  near  falls  or 
rapids  ?  What  is  a  dam  ?  How  is  it  built  ?  For  what 
is  it  used  ?  How  is  the  canal  built  which  drives  the  big 
wheel?  Describe  the  factories  at  Lowell,  Manchester 
and  Lawrence. 

Navigation  and  commerce.  What  kind  of  rivers  are 
used  for  navigation?  In  navigable  rivers  which  course 
(upper,  middle,  lower,)  is  generally  best  adapted  to 
navigation  ?  What  in  a  river  usually  stops  navigation  ? 
Canals  are  sometimes  used  to  take  steamboats  around 
falls.  Describe  the  commerce  on  the  Mississippi  river 
and  its  tributaries.  Thirty  years  ago  there  were  many 
more  steamboats  and  flatboats  in  use  upon  the  Missis- 
sippi than  now.  There  are  greater  quantities  of  goods 
transported  now  than  there  were  then.  How  do  you 
account  for  this  change  ?  Tell  pupils  how  loose  logs 
and  log-rafts  are  carried  down  rivers — Mississippi, 
Merrimack,  Penobscot. 

Railroads.  How  does  the  wearing  of  land  (ero- 
sion) assist  in  building  railroads  ?  Union  Pacific  Kail- 
road. 

Canals.  What  is  a  canal  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  canal  and  a  river?  How  are  canals  made? 
What  supplies  canals  with  water?  What  are  canal 
locks  ?  What  is  the  use  of  locks  ?  What  are  the  uses 
of  canals?  Manufacturing,  transportation.  How  are 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  177 

boats  moved  on  canals?  Before  railroads  were  built 
people  traveled  upon  canal  boats  called  packet  boats. 
Describe  the  Erie  canal,  Suez  canal,  the  proposed  Hen- 
nepin  canal,  Panama  canal. 

Irrigation.  What  is  irrigation?  How  does  the 
water  in  rivers  irrigate  the  soil  ?  Some  rivers  receive 
their  water  from  the  upper  or  mountainous  parts  of  the 
slopes  or  river  basins.  Why  ?  Why,  in  some  slopes  or 
river  basins,  does  rairi  fall  only  upon  the  upper  edges 
or  mountainous  parts  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  such  con- 
ditions upon  the  lower  parts  of  the  river  basins  or  the 
valley  of  the  river?  Mold  a  river  basin  and  illustrate 
the  conditions  above  given.  Lead  pupils  to  discover  a 
plan  by  which  the  dry  soil  of  the  river  valley  may 
receive  moisture  enough  for  vegetation.  How  could  the 
main  ditch  or  canal  be  made  ?  The  smaller  ditches  ? 
How  do  land  slopes  assist  in  irrigation  ? 

A  few  years  ago  the  basin  of  the  Platte  river  in 
Colorado,  just  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  was  a 
desert  covered  with  alkali;  the  land  was  worthless. 
There  is  plenty  of  water  in  the  river  and  plenty  of 
water  in  the  mountains,  for  their  snowy  tops  wring  the 
moisture  out  of  the  clouds  forced  over  them  by  the 
winds.  But  the  cold  tops  of  the  mountains  left  little 
or  no  rain  for  the  plains  below,  so  some  thoughtful 
and  enterprising  men  built  canals  or  ditches  in  which 
to  carry  water  from  the  upper  course  of  the  river, 


178  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

like  this  (illustrate).  From  this  main  ditch  run 
little  ditches  which  are  filled  with  water  to  irri- 
gate the  farms  (ranches  they  are  called  in  the 
West).  By  artificial  irrigation  the  desert  is  made  to 
"blossom  as  the  rose."  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes  and 
vegetables  are  now  raised  there  in  great  abundance. 
Some  farmers  say  that  they  prefer  irrigation  to  rain. 
Why?  For  irrigating  purposes  water  is  sometimes 
raised  from  rivers  by  pumps.  Show  pictures;  Nile. 
Windmills  are  often  used  to  fill  irrigating  ditches. 
Many  years  ago  great  plains  in  Asia  west  of  Hindoo 
Koosh  and  other  great  plains  in  Africa  west  of  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia  were  made  fertile  by  irrigation. 
Now  these  plains  are  deserts.  Why? 

Harbors.  The  shores  of  the  ocean  in  some  places 
are  building  coasts.  The  currents  of  the  ocean  and  the 
waters  of  the  rivers  bring  and  pile  up  sand  (form 
sand-bars),  and  in  time  plants  and  trees  grow  upon 
these  sand-bars  and  change  them  into  islands.  What 
effect  do  these  sand-bars  have  upon  navigation  and 
commerce?  On  zvearing  coasts,  where  the  waves  and 
tides  are  ever  eating  into  the  rocks,  there  are  generally 
good  harbors  ;  why  ?  What  constitutes  a  good  harbor  ? 
Where  do  you  find  good  harbors  on  building  or  sandy 
coasts  ?  Why  do  you  find  them  at  the  mouths  of  large 
rivers  ?  James,  Cape  Fear,  Savannah. 


NOTES — FOURTH  GRADE.  179 

Coasts  and  coast  lines.  ?.Iold  land  sloping  down 
to  the  ocean.  Where  is  the  coast?  What  is  a  coast? 
What  is  the  coast  line  ?  How  wide  is  the  coast  line  ? 
Mold  a  coast  with  hills  and  mountains  close  to  the 
ocean.  Describe  the  tides.  Tell  pupils  about  the 
waves  that  beat  against  the  coast.  What  is  the  effect 
of  the  tides  and  waves  upon  this  (rocky)  coast  ?  Where 
does  the  ocean  cut  into  the  land?  Make  a  change  in 
the  molded  coast  so  as  to  form  a  bay  ?  What  is  a  bay  ? 
Mold  the  gulf  and  peninsula  of  California.  Show  how 
the  waters  of  the  Pacific  fill  up  the  valley  between  the 
mountain  ranges.  What  is  a  gulf  ?  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  a  bay  and  a  gulf?  Mold  bays,  gulfs, 
seas,  harbors,  inlets,  fiords,  estuaries,  bights;  have 
pupils  describe,  draw  and  mold  the  same.  Have  pupils 
discover  how  these  indentations  were  formed,  and  tell 
their  uses.  Mold  wearing  coast ;  illustrate  how  such 
a  coast  is  made.  Describe  the  formation  of  sand-bars 
washed  up  by  waves  and  tides,  and  how  marshes  are 
formed  between  the  sand-bars  and  the  mainland ;  how 
both  become  part  of  the  mainland  and  then  h»*w  new 
sand-bars  are  formed.  Tell  them  about  the  Tide  Water 
Region  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America.  Draw, 
mold  and  compare  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  with  that  y>rtion 
south  of  it. 

Mold  and  draw    a  peninsula    after  field  lesions . 


180  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

This  is  a  peninsula ;  what  is  a  peninsula  ?  Why  u  as 
not  this  land  washed  away  by  the  water  with  the  hind 
around  it  ?  Change  this  peninsula  into  an  island.  What 
is  an  island  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  a  penin- 
sula and  an  island.  Why  are  peninsulas  and  islands 
nearly  always  locky,  hilly  or  mountainous?  Some 
islands  look  as  if  they  had  been  broken  off  from  mount- 
ain ranges — Great  Britain  from  the  Scandinavian 
mountains,  Sicily  from  the  Appennines. 

Mold  and  draw  a  promontory.  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  a  promontory  and  a  peninsula?  Mold 
and  draw  a  coast  with  a  peninsula,  a  promontory, 
an  island  and  a  cape.  What  is  this?  (pointing 
to  a  cape.)  What  is  a  cape?  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  a  cape  and  a  peninsula?  How  many 
capes  can  you  see  on  this  coast  ?  Have  pupils  mold 
coasts  with  all  the  indentations  and  projections ;  a  pen- 
insula, promontory,  island,  cape,  delta,  bay,  gulf,  sea, 
inlet,  estuary,  fiord.  Tell  pupils  about  (draw,  mold  and 
show  pictures  of)  fiords  of  Norway ;  the  ice  bound  coast 
of  the  Arctic  ocean ;  how  glaciers  enter  the  ocean  and 
are  broken  off  by  the  waves  and  sail  away  as  icebergs ; 
the  islands  of  the  Southern  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America.  A  lesson  upon  islands  should  be  given.  De- 
scribe continental  islands  and  oceanic  islands ;  volcanic 
islands,  coral  formations,  atolls,  reefs,  Floridas. 

NOTE. — The  plans  ar^.  hints  above  given  are  in- 


NOTES FOURTH    GRADK.  3  Si 

tended  to  suggest  lines  of  work.  Many  of  the  ques- 
tions are,  no  doubt,  far  too  difficult  for  pupils  of  the 
fourth  grade.  The  skillful  teacher  will  readily  dis- 
criminate between  questions  which  are  and  those  which 
are  not  adapted  to  her  pupils'  mental  powers.  The 
questions  that  are  too  difficult  for  present  use  will  sug- 
gest the  necessity  of  cultivating  the  power  to  answer 
them  in  the  next  or  higher  grades. 

Reading.  "Seven  Little  Sisters, "  "Each  and  All, " 
"Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,"  Scribner's  "Geo- 
graphical Keader, "  "Little  People  of  Asia,"  Dodge's 
"Stories  of  American  History,"  together  with  stories  of 
travels  over  mountains,  plains  and  sea  coasts. 

Language.  Writing  should  continually  be  used  in 
giving  the  substance  of  lessons.  Have  pupils  describe 
something  in  writing  each  day. 

Number.  Many  problems  should  be  made  with  the 
purpose  of  gaining  clear  ideas  of  distance,  areas, 
heights  and  relative  proportions.  This  slope  from  the 
sea  coast  (pointing  to  molded  slope)  is  fifty  feet  above 
the  sea  level  at  the  foot  of  the  hill ;  the  hill  is  250  feet 
above  the  sea  level ;  what  is  the  height  of  the  entire 
slope  ?  How  much  higher  above  the  sea  is  the  top  of 
hill  than  the  slope  at  the  base  of  the  hill  ?  If  the  sea 
should  wash  away  the  slope  up  to  the  foot  of  the  hill, 
how  high  would  the  hill  be  then  ?  It  is  five  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  coast  line  to  the  base  of  the  hill ; 


l82  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

what  is  the  average  inclination  of  the  slope  to  the 
mile  ?  What  is  the  average  grade  of  inclination  to  the 
mile  from  the  sea  to  the  summit  of  the  hill?  Here  is 
a  river  basin  (molded) ;  it  is  100  miles,  in  a  straight 
line,  from  the  source  to  the  mouth;  the  river  is  175 
miles  long ;  how  many  miles  does  the  river  wind  ?  The 
right  slope,  in  the  longest  part,  is  twenty-five  miles  from 
the  water-parting  to  the  river ;  the  left  slope,  opposite 
the  longest  part  of  the  right  slope,  is  thirty-seven  miles 
long ;  how  much  longer  is  the  left  slope  than  the  right 
slope  ?  How  far  is  it  on  this  line,  from  water-parting 
across  the  basin,  to  water-parting  ?  The  source  is  500 
feet  above  the  mouth ;  the  river  is  175  miles  long ;  what 
is  the  average  grade  of  slope  to  the  mile  ?  If  the  river 
flows  two  miles  in  an  hour,  how  long  would  it  take  a 
drop  of  water  to  go  from  the  source  to  the  mouth  ? 
The  highest  part  of  the  water-parting  on  the  left  slope 
is  250  feet  high ;  the  highest  part  of  the  source  slope  is 
500  feet  high ;  the  highest  part  of  the  right  slope  is  150 
feet  high ;  how  much  higher  is  the  right  slope  than  the 
left  slope  ?  The  right  slope  than  the  source  slope  ? 
Each  problem  should  lead  pupils  to  imagine  height, 
distance,  area  or  proportion. 

The  weather.     Keep  a  daily  account  of  the  weather 
upon  the  blackboard.      1.    Direction  of  the  wind.      2. 
Force  of  the  wind.      3.    Degree  of    heat ;  pressure  of 
atmosphere  in  barometer.     4 .  Eain  or  snow.       5  .  Sun- 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  183 

shine.     Have  pupils  read  weather  reports   and  notice 
whether  the  predictions  prove  true. 


FIFTH   GRADE. 

Review  thoroughly  all  the  work  of  the  previous 
grades.  The  more  carefully  the  elementary  work  is 
done  the  better  and  quicker  the  science  of  geography 
can  be  taught.  All  the  concepts  of  natural  features  are 
to  be  brought  together,  combined,  mingled  and  blended 
into  one  great  whole ;  that  is,  a  concept  is  to  be  formed 
in  the  pupils'  minds  which  corresponds  generally  to  the 
real  continent  of  North  America.  The  teaching  of  the 
first  continent  should  be  very  carefully  done,  as  the 
other  continents,  one  by  one,  will  be  compared  with  it ; 
it  will,  indeed,  be  the  principal  means  of  teaching  all  the 
other  continents.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  North 
America  should  be  preferred  to  South  America  in  begin- 
ning, except  the  fact  that  it  is  our  own  continent. 

Molding  in  sand,  drawing,  and  descriptions  both 
oral  and  printed,  are  the  means  by  which  the  concept 
is  formed.  By  molding  the  fundamental  concept  of 
the  upraised  mass  is  made  clear.  Still  the  warning 
given  must  be  repeated — molding,  although  an  excel- 
lent means,  may  become  an  end,  and  the  pupil's  mental 
vision  be  limited  almost  entirely  by  it.  Oral  and  writ- 
ten descriptions  assist  very  much  in  avoiding  this,  the 


184  HOW  TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

main  difficulty.     Lead  pupils  to  see  beyond  the  sand, 
else  the  work  is  useless. 

There  are  several  plans  of  teaching  continents  by 
molding.  (1.)  Draw  the  outline  upon  the  large  molding 
table  and  cover  the  surface  within  the  outline  with  a 
thin  layer  of  sand.  Upon  this  layer  of  sand  build  the 
great  western  mass  of  land,  crowned  by  the  Eocky 
Mountain  system ;  follow  this  by  the  eastern  or  lesser 
land  mass  with  the  Appalachian  system.  From  this  go 
to  river  basins  and  river  systems.  (2.)  Mold  the  Eocky 
Mountain  system  first,  then  add  the  slopes,  one  to  the 
Pacific  ocean,  the  other  to  the  Mississippi  and  Mac- 
kenzie rivers ;  follow  this  by  molding  the  Appalachian 
system  and  the  slopes  to  the  Atlantic  and  toward  the 
west.  (3.)  Mold  the  entire  continent  before  the  lesson, 
and  have  pupils  describe  what  they  see,  taking,  of 
course,  the  most  prominent  features  first. 

The  fourth  way  is  to  begin  with  the  simplest  gen- 
eral whole,  to-wit :  the  two  slopes  which  form  the  entire 
continent,  the  long  slope  and  the  short  slope.  Present 
these  unmodified  by  counter  slopes  and  river  basins. 
Mold  a  rough  outline  (coast  line)  around  the  two  slopes, 
giving  a  brief  description  as  you  mold.  Then  mold  and 
describe  the  most  prominent  modification  of  the  long 
and  short  slopes.  The  line  of  procedure  in  this  plan 
and,  indeed,  it  should  be  in  all  devices,  is  from  the  most 
prominent,  natural  divisions  (those  embracing  the 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  185 

largest  areas)  to  the  next  in  importance  and  size.  Mold 
in  the  general  whole  each  natural  division  as  you  teach  it. 
Some  teachers,  lacking  in  technical  skill  to  mold,  may 
shrink  from  the  work.  Of  course  the  more  thorough 
the  preparation  you  make,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  economically  you  can  use  time  in  teaching.  Yet, 
if  you  haven't  the  skill,  have  the  courage  to  begin ;  "the 
way  to  resume  is  to  resume."  If  you  haven't  a  good 
relief  map  from  which  to  copy,  you  can  interpret  in 
sand  good  physical  maps  like  Guyot's  and  Stanford's,  or 
you  can  use  pictures  of  relief  found  in  Swinton's  Geo- 
graphies and  others. 

The  fourth  plan  is  illustrated  below.  Only  a 
meager  description  is  given  and  very  few  questions  are 
asked  compared  with  the  number  a  skillful  teacher  will 
easily  think  of.  Avoid  too  many  details ;  teach  those 
facts  only  in  these  first  steps,  which  assist  in  making 
clear  the  general  whole.  Keep  steadily  before  you  the 
purpose  of  building  in  the  mind  the  continent  as  a 
whole  with  its  content  of  general  features.  When  a 
clear  general  picture  has  been  acquired,  details  without 
number  may  be  filled  in. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

A  pile  of  dampened  sand  lies  upon  the  molding 
table.  Be  careful  not  to  have  the  sand  too  damp ;  just 
enough  water  should  be  mixed  with  it  to  make  it  work 


1 86  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

easily.  Mold  the  two  slopes  of  North  America.  I 
want  you  to  think  of  a  great  mass  of  rock  raised  above 
the  ocean  level.  Here  (pointing)  is  the  Pacific  ocean ; 
here  the  Atlantic,  and  here  the  Arctic  ocean.  This 
mass  of  upraised  rock  is  5,700  miles  long.  How  long 
would  it  take  you  to  travel  on  foot  the  entire  length  of 
this  continent,  if  you  traveled  twenty  miles  a  day  ?  How 
long  would  it  take  you  to  ride  over  it  on  a  railroad 
train,  if  you  rode  thirty  miles  an  hour? 

This  continent  is  3,000  miles  wide — from  East  to 
West — in  the  widest  place ;  how  long  would  it  take  to 
go  on  the  cars  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  at  the 
rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour?  The  area  of  the  con- 
tinent in  square  miles  is  9,349,585.  How  many  farms  of 
640  acres  could  the  whole  continent  be  divided  into? 
Would  all  the  land  make  good  farms  ?  Why  not  ?  If 
20  people  lived  on  a  square  mile,  how  many  inhabitants 
would  North  America  have?  Write  all  these  figures 
upon  the  board.  Make  other  problems.  How  many 
slopes  do  you  see  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the 
slopes?  This  slope  (the  long  one)  is  2,200  miles  long; 
how  long  is  this  slope  ?  (the  short  one.)  Compare  the 
two  slopes.  Into  what  ocean  would  the  water  on  the 
long  slope  flow  ?  On  the  short  slope  ?  Point  out  the 
line  of  meeting  of  the  two  slopes.  How  long  is  this 
line?  This  line  is  called  the  continental  axis; 
What  is  a  line  ?  How  is  a  line  formed  ?  How  wide  is 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  187 

the  continental  axis  ?  The  teacher  molds  the  outline  of 
the  continent,  describing  each  part.  Here  is  the  out- 
line of  what?  Peninsula  of  Alaska.  Just  across  this 
strait  is  Asia,  another  continent.  This  is  the  coast  line 
of  what  ocean?  Pacific.  Here  are  several  islands 
which  look  as  if  they  had  been  broken  off,  some  day, 
from  the  continent.  What  would  break  them  off? 
Queen  Charlotte's  island,  Vancouver  s  island.  The  water 
which  separates  Vancouver's  island  from  the  main  land 
is  called  Puget's  Sound.  What  is  a  sound?  How  does 
it  differ  from  a  gulf?  Here  is  a  very  long  bend  or 
curve  in  the  coast.  These  mountains  (coast  mountains) 
cause  the  coast  line  to  curve.  Mold  the  peninsula  of 
California.  Here  is  a  long  low  range  of  mountains ; 
between  this  range  and  the  next  range  is  a  depression 
lower  than  the  ocean  level;  the  lower  end  of  this  de- 
pression opens  upon  the  ocean;  what  ocean?  What 
would  we  find  in  this  depression  ?  How  far  does  the 
ocean  flow  into  this  depression  ?  What  does  the  water 
form  ?  Gulf  of  California.  Which  way  does  the  coast 
line  curve  now?  Toward  the  east.  Now  the  coast  line 
curves  out  from  the  main  land,  and  now  it  curves 
into  the  main  land,  and  then  out  again.  What  have 
I  molded?  In  what  general  direction  does  the  coast 
line  run  ?  What  determines  where  the  coast  line  must 
be? 

Now  I  will  begin  at  Bering  strait  and  mold  the 


1 88  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

northern  coast  line  of  the  continent.  The  coast  line  of 
what  ocean  ?  Arctic  ocean.  .  The  outline  of  this  coast, 
in  all  its  parts,  is  very  imperfectly  known.  Why? 
Very  cold  climate.  Never  has  been  surveyed.  Why 
has  it  not  been  surveyed  ?  When  can  ships  come  here  ? 
Why  not  in  winter  ?  The  water  is  frozen  most  of  the 
year.  Great  masses  of  land  have  been  broken  off  from 
the  main  land,  forming  what  ?  This  (molding)  is  Bank's 
land ;  this  Prince  Albert,  and  here  is  Baffinland.  Tell 
pupils  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  Dr.  Kane,  Lieut.  Greeley. 
Here  is  a  great  depression  in  the  continent  filled  with 
water — Hudson's  Bay.  Now  the  coast  line  moves  south- 
east, broken  by  this  point,  Cape  Chudleigh.  What  does 
this  land  form  ?  A  peninsula.  What  water  is  on  the 
eastern  side  ?  What  on  the  northern  side  ?  Here  the 
coast  line  turns  toward  the  south  and  here  begins  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  A  narrow  strait  separates  the  main- 
land from  a  large  island — New7  Foundland.  Why  do 
you  think  it  is  called  by  this  name  ?  What  is  this  ? 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  What  are  these  ?  Two  islands — 
Prince  Edward  and  Cape  Breton  islands.  Mold  Nova 
Scotia.  What  is  this  ?  The  water,  which  here  separ- 
ates the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  from  the  .main  land, 
is  called  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  tide  rises  in  this  bay 
to  a  great  height.  Now  the  coast  line  curves  in,  and 
here  is  a  curious  form  like  a  fish-hook — Cape  Cod. 
Right  across  this  little  bay  the  Pilgrims  landed  in ? 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  189 

There  is  a  sharp  turn  around  Cape  Cod,  and  the  coast 
line  runs  toward  the  west.  This  is  Long  Island  Sound  ; 
and  this  island  is  Long  Island.  Now  the  line  moves 
toward  the  south ;  the  water  of  the  Atlantic  enters  the 
land  in  two  places,  you  see — Delaware  Bay  and  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Then  follows  a  curve.  Long  sand-bar 
islands  are  found  here.  Can  you  tell  me  anything 
about  them  ?  This  peninsula  was  made  by  little  bits 
of  animals  which  lived  and  died  and  left  their  bones  to 
build  islands  and  peninsulas  like  this — Florida.  Now 
we  are  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a  great,  deep,  broad  de- 
pression, filled  with  water.  Here  at  the  entrance  is  a 
long,  narrow  island — Cuba.  East  of  it  is  another 
island — Hayti,  and  east  of  that  a  little  island — Porto 
Rico.  North  of  these  large  islands  (West  Indies)  are  a 
great  number  of  small  islands — Bahama  Islands.  South 
of  the  West  Indies  is  the  Carribean  Sea.  This  sea  is  a 
part  of  a  great  ocean  current  that  comes  across  the 
Atlantic  from  the  hot  shores  of  Africa.  It  pours  an 
immense  flood  of  warm  water  between  -the  West  Indies 
and  the  northern  shores  of  South  America  and  the 
shores  of  this  isthmus.  (Mold  all  forms  mentioned.) 
What  is  an  isthmus  ?  Then  a  part  of  it  moves  on  be- 
tween Cuba  and  Yucatan,  through  the  Yucatan  channel 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  What  is  a  channel?  How 
does  a  channel  differ  from  a  strait  ?  In  this  gulf  the 
Gulf  Stream  turns  around  (why?)  and  flows  between 


190  HOW   TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

Cuba  and  Florida,  up  the  coast ;  then  it  crosses  the 
Atlantic  to  warm  the  shores  of  Great  Britain  and  Scan- 
dinavia. Illustrate  by  drawing.  Now  we  have  traveled 
on  the  coast  line  around  North  America.  Bound  this 
continent.  Write  a  description  of  the  coast  line  I  have 
molded. 

Take  your  pans  and  mold  North  America  with  its 
two  great  slopes.  Trace  the  continental  axis.  Bound 
the  long  slope  ;  the  short  slope.  Bound  by  natural  lines. 
How  long  is  the  long  slope  (from  east  to  west)  ?  How 
broad  is  it  (from  north  to  south)  ?  Where  is  it  the 
shortest  ?  Where  the  longest  ?  The  long  slope  is  in- 
clined toward  what  ocean  ?  It  does  not  slope  all  the 
way  like  this.  Mold  in  the  long  slope,  the  Appalachian 
mountain  system  and  the  southern  and  western  water- 
parting  of  the  Hudson  Bay  system.  Mold  the  slopes  of 
this  land  mass.  Where  will  the  water  on  the  long  slope 
flow  now  ?  Mold  the  Mississippi  river  basin,  i.  e.,  change 
the  general  form  of  the  slope.  Where  will  the  water 
flow  in  this  basin?  Why?  Trace  the  main  river — 
Mississippi.  Why  does  the  river  flow  over  that  line  ? 
How  much  land  does  this  river  drain  ?  Mold  the  Mac- 
kenzie basin.  Which  way  does  the  water  flow  hero? 
Into  what  ocean?  Why?  Trace  the  river.  Mold  the 
Saskatchewan  basin.  What  change  do  the  basins  of  the 
Mississippi,  Mackenzie  and  Saskatchewan  rivers  make 
in  the  long  slope  ?  Lead  pupils  to  see  the  great  central 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  191 

valley  of  North  America.  Trace  on  molded  map  the 
Mississippi  river  from  its  mouth  to  its  source.  What 
causes  this  river.  Two  slopes  meeting  at  their  lower 
edges.  Show  me  the  slopes.  Trace  the  Mackenzie 
river  in  the  same  way.  Show  me  the  slopes  this  river 
drains.  What  separates  the  Mississippi  basin  from  the 
Mackenzie  basin?  Saskatchewan  basin.  Trace  in 
molded  map  the  lowest  line  (above  the  sea  level)  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie. Into  what  does  this  line  divide  North  America  ? 
Which  is  the  larger  mass  of  land?  Which  is  the 
smaller  ?  In  which  is  the  continental  axis  ?  The  larger 
mass  we  will  call  the  primary  land  mass ;  the  smaller 
the  secondary  land  mass.  By  what  is  the  primary  land 
mass  divided  ?  Into  what  does  the  continental  axis 
divide  the  primary  land  mass?  Bound  the  western 
slope.  The  eastern  slope.  Which  is  the  longer  ?  (east- 
ern or  western.)  Where  do  most  of  the  rivers  rise  in 
the  western  slope?  The  eastern  slope? 

Secondary  land  mass.  How  many  slopes  has  the 
secondary  land  mass?  Where  do  most  of  the  rivers 
rise  in  the  western  slope  ?  In  the  eastern  slope  ?  Trace 
the  line  that  divides  the  two  slopes.  This  line  is  called 
the  secondary  axis  of  North  America.  Mold  the  St. 
Lawrence  basin.  What  effect  does  this  basin  have  upon 
the  secondary  land  mass  ?  The  river  separates  it  into  two 
parts.  Which  part  is  the  larger?  Mold  the  Appa- 


192  HOW    TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

lachian  mountain  system.  These  mountains  begin 
where? — (St.  Lawrence  basin)  and  extend  in  what 
direction  ? — nearly  to  what  ?  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

I  must  tell  you  something  about  mountains  and 
mountain  systems.  Mountain  systems  are  the  upper 
or  highest  parts  of  great  land  masses.  They  look  very 
large  because  they  rise  so  abruptly  from  the  general 
level  of  the  land,  but  they  form  really  a  very  small 
part  of  a  great  land  mass.  If  all  the  mountains  were 
ground  up  to  fine  powder  and  spread  over  the  rest  of 
the  land  they  would  form  a  very  thin  coating.  You 
must  think  that  a  mountain  system  is  the  upper  part  of 
the  land  mass.  A  mountain  system  consists  (is  made 
up)  of  several  ranges  or  chains,  which  extend  in  the 
same  general  direction.  These  ranges  are  sometimes 
called  parallel,  but  they  are  not  really  parallel.  Illus- 
trate by  molding.  A  mountain  range,  like  a  coast  line, 
curves  and  bends  so  as  to  form  a  very  crooked  line. 
From  the  Susquehanna  river  (mold)  down  nearly  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  the  Appalachian  mountain  system  con- 
sists of  the  so-called  parallel  ranges.  Here  is  the  Blue 
Ridge,  one  of  the  ranges.  It  is  called  a  ridge,  I  sup- 
pose, because,  for  a  long  distance,  this  range  is  really  a 
ridge;  that  is,  it  has  one  continuous  crest  like  this 
(mold).  Over  the  Blue  Ridge  runs  the  secondary  axis; 
several  rivers  break  through  it.  West  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  and  nearly  parallel  with  it,  is  the  Allegheny 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  193 

range.  Between  the  Blue  Eidge  and  the  Allegheny 
range  is  a  long  valley.  It  is  not  a  continuous  valley, 
however,  for  several  small  ranges  run,  laterally,  in  the 
same  general  direction  as  the  Blue  Kidge  and  the  Alle- 
ghenies.  These  ranges  often  come  together  and  form 
knots  which  obstruct  the  valleys.  The  upper  end  of 
this  long  valley  is  called  the  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah ; 
it  was  made  famous  in  the  Civil  War ;  the  lower  end  is 
the  Valley  of  the  Tennessee,  out  of  which  the  river 
Tennessee  rushes.  Just  where  the  Tennessee  river 
flows  out  of  this  valley  is  Chattanooga.  What  do  you 
know  of  Chattanooga? 

North  of  the  Susquehanna  river  the  mountain 
ranges  are  not  so  regular.  Here  are  the  Catskills,  and 
south  of  them  the  Palisades  on  the  Hudson.  North  of 
the  Catskills  is  a  comparatively  level  country,  although 
there  is  a  gradual  slope  to  the  Atlantic.  Just  north  of  the 
level  land  are  the  Adirondacks,  so  famous  for  fishing  and 
hunting.  Then  comes  a  long,  deep  depression  or  break 
through  the  mountain  system,  which  extends  from  the 
St.  Lawrence  basin  to  the  ocean.  The  northern  part 
of  this  depression  is  partially  filled  by  Lake  Champlain. 
Down  through  the  southern  part  flows  the  beautiful 
Hudson.  The  eastern  side  of  this  long  valley  has  the 
Green  and  Housatonic  mountains  for  walls.  The  Green 
mountain  range  extends  (under  other  names)  to  the  St. 
Lawrence  basin  and  there  forms  the  upper  part  of  the 


194  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

right  slope  of  that  basin.  East  of  the  Green  mount- 
ains, across  the  Connecticut  river,  is  a  bunch  or  knot 
of  mountains  called  the  White  Mountains.  Thus  we 
have  had  a  glance  at  the  Appalachian  system.  Tell  me 
all  you  can  about  it.  Write  a  description  of  it. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Kiver,  I  have  said,  separates 
what  ?  The  northern  part  of  the  secondary  land  mass 
is  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Kiver,  and  is  called  the 
Peninsula  of  Labrador.  A  mountain  range  runs  through 
it  from  south  to  north.  The  eastern  slope  pours  its 
waters  into  the  Atlantic,  the  western  into  Hudson's  bay. 

From  these  small  mountains,  which  are  called 
wrinkles  or  folds  of  the  earth's  crust,  we  will  turn  to 
the  mountains  which  form  the  upper  part  or  crest  of 
the  great  primary  land  mass  of  the  West.  We  have 
traced  the  continental  axis  the  entire  length  of 
the  continent ;  now  I  will  begin  at  the  narrowest  part 
of  this  immense  mass  of  rock  and  try  to  show  you,  by 
molding,  how  these  mountains  look.  Here  in  this  isth- 
mus of  Panama,  only  fifty  miles  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
there  is  one  low  range  of  mountains,  at  the  lowest  point 
only  150  feet  high.  Who  is  trying  to  dig  a  canal  here? 
How  would  this  canal  help  commerce  ?  There  is  only 
one  range  until  we  reach  this  high  mountain — Popo- 
catapetl — 17,784  feet  high.  From  this  point  there  are 
two  immense  mountain  ranges,  which  extend  to  the 
frozen  ocean,  more  than  5,000  miles.  (Eoughly  out- 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  195 

line  the  two  ranges  in  the  sand.)  Between  these  two 
ranges  is  a  vast  plateau.  What  is  a  plateau  ?  Here  in 
Mexico  the  plateau  is  wedge-shaped  with  very  high 
mountain  walls  on  the  west ;  but  on  the  eastern  edge 
of  the  plateau  there  are  few  mountains.  If  you  were 
on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (pointing)  you  would 
see,  to  the  west,  what  would  seem  to  be  a  high  mount- 
ain ridge.  If  you  were  to  climb  up  the  steep  slope  you 
would  find  on  the  top  a  comparatively  level  plateau. 
In  the  northern  part  of  this  plateau  of  Mexico,  and  on 
the  eastern  edge,  the  great  range  of  the  Eocky  mount- 
ains begins  to  rise.  It  runs  nearly  due  north  for  more 
than  500  miles.  Here  the  Eio  Grande  breaks  through 
the  range,  then  the  range  curves  to  the  west.  This  curve 
is  about  450  miles  long.  Not  far  from  the  western  slope 
of  this  long  curve  flows  the  Eio  Grande,  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  range  flows  the  Rio  Pecos, 
which  unites  with  the  Eio  Grande  near  where  the  lat- 
ter river  breaks  through  the  mountains.  Now  this 
great  Eocky  mountain  range,  instead  of  continuing  as 
a  single  range,  breaks  up  into  all  sorts  of  wonderful 
forms ;  it  turns,  bends,  twists  and  knots  up  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  mold  or 
describe  it.  These  curious  mountain  knots  extend 
in  a  northerly  direction  for  more  than  500  miles.  I 
can  describe  it  best  by  molding  and  telling  you  about 
the  wonderful  Eocky  mountain  parks.  These  parks  are 


196  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

in  this  range.  (Mold  San  Luis  valley  by  itself.)  Im- 
agine a  valley,  as  level  as  a  table,  nearly  8,000  feet 
above  the  ocean  level,  140  miles  long  and  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty  miles  wide,  walled  in  by  snow-capped 
mountains.  It  is  drained  by  the  upper  course  of  the 
Kio  Grande.  Northeast  from  the  San  Luis  valley,  just 
over  a  high  mountain  range,  is  the  South  Park— fifty 
miles  long,  twenty-five  miles  broad  and  in  shape  like 
an  ellipse.  This  magnificent  park  is  in  one  place  10,000 
feet  above  the  ocean  level.  North  of  South  Park  is 
Middle  Park,  and  north  of  that  is  North  Park.  Farther 
north  are  the  plains  of  Laramie,  drained  by  the  North 
Platte  river,  which  breaks  through  the  Eocky  moun- 
tains. North  of  this  break  the  range  bends  toward  the 
west,  in  which  direction  it  runs  for  nearly  300  miles ; 
then  it  bends  to  the  north  again.  About  100  miles 
from  this  curve  of  the  range  is  the  wonderful  Yellowstone 
Park.  Can  you  tell  me  anything  about  this  park? 

Show  pictures.  Teachers  should  collect  a  large 
number  of  pictures  of  mountain  scenery. 

From  the  curve  in  which  we  find  the  Yellowstone 
Park  the  Eocky  mountains  move  steadily  in  a  northerly 
direction  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  Very  little  is  known  of 
them  after  they  enter  the  frozen  regions  of  the  North ; 
there  may  be  more  wonderful  parks  and  some  high  peaks 
that  are  yet  to  be  discovered. 

Now  we  will  begin  again  at  the  narrow  isthmus 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  197 

and  see  how  the  great  western  wall  of  the  plateau  looks. 
This  range,  which  runs  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
Eocky  mountains,  has  several  names.  We  will  call  it 
by  the  best  known  name  of  Sierra  Nevada.  Sierra 
means  saw,  and  Nevada  a  heavy  fall  of  snow.  Why 
do  these  mountains  have  this  name  ?  Kising  from  the 
low  mountains  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama  the  range 
reaches  a  very  great  height,  just  opposite  (west  of)  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Here  we  find 
Popocatapetl  and  a  knot  of  very  high  mountains.  This 
is  a  volcanic  region.  What  is  a  volcano  ?  In  these 
mountains,  eighty  miles  from  the  Pacific  ocean  (point), 
happened  something  very  wonderful  in  1759.  How 
many  years  ago  ?  From  comparatively  level  land,  2,800 
feet  above  the  ocean,  sprang  up  all  at  once  a  volcano 
(Jorullo),  4,205  feet  above  the  ocean;  how  high  above 
the  plain  ?  This  range  is  called  the  Sierra  Madre  here ; 
it  curves  to  the  west  and  then  to  the  north.  From 
Cape  Corrientes  (here)  this  range  extends  in  a  northerly 
direction  (a  little  west  of  north)  for  500  miles  to  where 
the  Colorado  river  breaks  through  it  in  its  mighty 
struggle  to  enter  the  Gulf  of  California.  Here  the 
range  separates  into  two  ranges.  One  is  the  Wasatch 
range,  which  extends  to  the  northeast  diagonally  across 
the  great  plateau,  and  joins  the  Eocky  mountain  range, 
where  it  turns  toward  the  north,  sending  out  straight 
toward  the  east  a  spur  called  the  Uintah  mountains.  At 


198  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Colorado  river  the  western  wall  sinks  into  a  great 
desert  or  plateau  called  the  Mohave  Desert,  in  which  is 
the  famous  Death  Valley,  100  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
Pacific.  Why  does  not  the  ocean  cover  this  valley? 
Across  the  parched  and  barren  Mohave  Desert,  in  the 
northeast,  this  range  rises  again  into  towering,  snow- 
capped mountains  (the  true  Sierra  Nevada  range).  In- 
clined toward  the  east  this  range  extends  in  a  northerly 
direction  for  450  miles.  It  is  the  buttress  of  the  great 
plateau  and  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Valley  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  waters  which  drain  its  steep  slopes  cut  out 
from  the  hard  rock  bits  and  nuggets  of  gold.  The 
upper  course  breaks  through  the  range  just  south  of 
Mt.  Shasta  (show  pictures),  and  the  range  turns  slightly 
toward  the  east ;  280  miles  more  and  the  Columbia 
river  dashes  through  the  lofty  mountain  walls.  The 
range  north  of  and  including  Mt.  Shasta  is  called  the 
Cascade  range.  Why  ?  Here  we  find  glaciers  on  Mt. 
Tacoma  14,444  feet  high,  just  two  feet  higher  than 
Mt.  Shasta,  on  which  there  is  also  a  glacier.  Now  we 
find  a  long  curve  from  the  ocean  (nearly  500  miles). 
At  the  foot  of  the  abrupt  slope  of  the  range  (here)  lies 
Puget's  Sound ;  across  this  sound  is  Vancouver's  Island. 
Here  the  mountains  continue  in  their  northerly  direc- 
tion to  Mt.  Fairweather  (15,500  feet),  and  Mt.  St.Elias 
(19,500  feet),  the  highest  peak  in  North  America.  At 
these  lofty  peaks  the  range  bends  almost  directly  to- 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  199 

ward  the  west  and  extends  hundreds  of  miles  out  into 
the  waters  of  the  Pacific  ocean  (Alaska  peninsula). 

Coast  range.  For  a  very  long  distance  the  Cas- 
cade and  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  do  not  descend 
directly  to  the  ocean.  This  range,  or  these  ranges,  have 
foot  hills,  or  they  might  better  be  called  foot  mountains. 
I  will  mold  them,  beginning  here  at  Vancouver's  Island. 
The  valley  between  the  coast  range  and  the  higher 
range  is  filled  with  water  (Puget's  Sound).  This  range 
runs  close  to  the  coast  toward  the  south ;  in  fact,  it  de- 
termines the  coast  line.  How  ?  It  extends  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  although  much 
lower.  It  makes  a  great  sweeping  curve  into  the  Pacific 
ocean.  Here  (pointing)  the  coast  range  on  the  west  and 
the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  east  inclose  the  basins  of  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers.  The  Sacramento 
flows  toward  the  south ;  the  San  Joaquin  toward  the 
north.  The  two  rivers  unite  nearly  opposite  the  Golden 
Gate  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  These  two  basins  form  the 
wonderful  and  magnificent  Valley  of  California.  A 
little  southwest  of  the  Golden  Gate,  150  miles  in  the 
Sierra  Nevadas,  is  the  famous  Yosemite  Valley,  the 
great  rival,  in  wonders,  of  the  Yellowstone  Park.  (Show 
pictures.)  In  the  southern  boundary  of  the  San  Joa- 
quin basin  the  coast  range  unites  with  the  Sierra  Nevada 
range,  and  sends  out  a  long  branch  or  spur  to  the  south, 
which  forms  the  peninsula  of  California. 


2OO  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Now,  as  we  have  had  a  glimpse  of  the  huge  mount- 
ain walls  or  buttresses  of  the  great  plateau,  we  will 
look  at  the  plateau  itself.  The  southern  part  comprises 
the  plateau  of  Mexico.  It  is  wedge-shaped  with  high 
mountain  walls  on  the  west  side  and  an  abrupt  slope  to 
the  gulf  on  the  eastern  side.  This  part  of  the  great 
plateau  really  extends  toward  the  north  for  more  than 
2,000  miles,  enclosed  on  the  east  by  the  Eocky  mount- 
ain range,  on  the  west  by  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Waw- 
satch  mountains,  and  shut  in  on  the  north  by  that 
section  of  the  Kocky  mountain  range  which  runs  east 
and  west.  The  northern  part  of  this  plateau  is  the 
upper  basin  of  the  Colorado,  and  the  middle  portion  is 
drained  for  the  greater  part  by  the  Eio  Grande.  Now 
comes  the  Great  Basin,  shaped  like  an  ellipse,  600  miles 
in  breadth,  900  miles  from  north  tt)  south,  and  enclosed 
by  the  Sierra  Nevada,  Wawsatch  and  Eocky  mountains ; 
drained  in  the  north  by  the  Snake  river,  in  the  south 
partially  by  the  Colorado,  while  a  large  space  in  the 
center  has  no  outlet.  The  water  flows  in  streams 
(Humboldt)  and  loses  itself  in  sinks.  I  thought  once 
that  plateaus  were  level  like  prairies.  This  is  very  far 
from  the  truth ;  indeed,  this  plateau  is  a  great  mass  of 
mountains,  range  upon  range,  extending  in  a  general 
direction  from  north  to  south.  (Eead  descriptions.) 
If  you  were  to  travel  on  any  one  of  the  railroads  that 
run  over  this  vast  plateau  to  the  Pacific  you.,  would  not 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADK.  2OI 

think  that  a  plateau  is  level.  'Mountains,  mountains 
everywhere,  on  the  right  and  on  the  left.  Great,  arid, 
treeless  expanses ;  no  vegetation  except  sage  bushes 
and  prickly  pears,  growing  out  of  dry  soil  covered  with 
alkali.  Miles  and  miles  of  villages  inhabited  by  prairie 
dogs.  The  houses  in  these  villages  are  little  mounds  of 
earth,  the  doors  are  holes,  at  the  entrances  of  which  the 
inhabitants  (prairie  dogs)  sit  and  watch  the  passing 
trains.  Wherever  water  can  be  obtained  from  the 
snowy-topped  mountains  this  desert  may  be  made  fer- 
tile. The  Mormons  in  Utah  have  changed  dreary  wastes 
to  rich  fields.  No  doubt  there  are  millions  of  acres  yet 
to  be  reclaimed  from  sage  bush,  prickly  pear  and  prairie 
dog  by  irrigation. 

The  teacher  should  mold  the  continent  again  and 
have  pupils  mold  upon  pans,  following  the  teacher  and 
describing  natural  divisions  as  they  mold.  Ask  the 
pupils  many  questions  relating  to  the  work  done  about 
North  America.  Put  aside  maps  and  ask  questions. 
Test,  continually,  your  pupils'  power  to  picture  the  conti- 
nent without  the  presence  of  maps. 

Have  pupils  draw  maps  of  the  continent  on  the 
blackboard  from  the  molded  form.  Lead  them  to  im- 
agine the  coast  as  they  draw  it ;  tell  whether  they  are 
wearing  or  building  coasts,  and  why.  What  mountains 
do  you  see  ?  Why  can  you  not  see  the  mountains  from 
this  part  of  the  coast  ?  Too  far  off.  How  far  ?  What 


2O2  HOW  TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

islands?  How  were  they  made?  What  peninsulas? 
How  made?  Bays,  gulfs,  mouths  of  rivers,  etc.  Do 
not  be  afraid  of  very  crude  results  at  first ;  lead  pupils 
to  criticise  their  own  work,  and  try  again.  The  only 
use  of  either  drawing  or  molding  is  to  picture  the  conti- 
nent; drawing  maps  is  a  worthless  process  unless  it 
makes  the  concept  clearer.  Have  them  begin,  for  in 
stance,  with  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  and  draw  the 
coast  line  of  the  Pacific  ocean.  Have  very  little  detail 
at  first.  How  was  this  peninsula  formed?  By  what 
mountains?  What  islands  do  you  see?  How  do  the 
coast  mountains  look  ?  Where  are  the  Sierra  Nevadas  ? 
How  far  away  ?  Draw  first  the  Arctic  coast  line.  De- 
scribe this  coast,  then  follow  with  the  Atlantic  coast 
line,  and  lastly  with  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Draw 
continental  axis,  secondary  axis,  and  indicate  mountain 
ranges. 

Mississippi  basin.  Before  the  molded  map.  Bound 
the  Mississippi  basin.  Have  pupils  discover  the  bound- 
aries. The  use  of  bounding  natural  divisions  is  to 
stimulate  the  power  of  close  observation.  Bound  always 
by  natural  lines.  The  Mississippi  basin  is  bounded 
upon  the  west  by  the  continental  axis,  and  the  water- 
parting  of  the  Texan  river  basin  system ;  on  the  north 
by  the  water-parting  of  the  Saskatchewan  or  the  Win- 
nipeg basin,  and  the  water-parting  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin ;  on  the  east  by  the  secondary  axis  nnd  the  water- 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  203 

parting  of  the  Alabama  river  basin  system.  Bound  the 
right  slope  of  the  Mississippi  river  basin.  What  great 
river  basins  are  there  in  this  slope?  Which  is  the 
largest?  Describe  the  upper  part  of  this  slope;  the 
middle ;  the  lowest  part.  What  mountains  are  entirely 
in  this  slope?  Ozark.  Bound  the  left  slope.  What 
are  the  great  river  basins  in  this  slope  ?  Mold  as  you 
ask  questions.  Describe  the  upper  part  of  this  slope ; 
the  lower  part.  Compare  the  right  slope  with  the  left 
slope.  Which  is  the  larger?  The  higher?  Which 
contains  the  larger  number  of  river  basins  ?  Compare 
the  basin  of  the  Missouri  with  the  basin  of  the  Ohio  ? 
What  and  where  has  this  river  basin  the  greatest 
breadth?  The  least  breadth?  The  greatest  length? 
What  and  where  is  the  greatest  height  of  water-parting  ? 
The  least  height  ?  Where  in  this  basin  is  the  richest 
soil  ?  Why  is  it  found  here  ?  Describe  the  prairies  ; 
the  alluvial  soil.  Draw  on  the  blackboard  the  water- 
parting  of  this  basin.  Indicate  the  different  bound- 
aries, continental  axis,  secondary  axis,  water-parting  of 
the  Winnipeg  basin,  etc.  This  basin  contains  1,256,- 
000  square  miles  of  land,  most  of  which  is  fertile. 
How  many  States  of  the  size  of  Ehode  Island  (1,250 
square  miles)  could  be  made  out  of  this  basin  ?  How 
many  States  as  large  as  New  York  (49,170  square 
miles)  ?  How  many  countries  as  large  as  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  (121,603  square  miles)  could  be  made  out 


204  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

of  the  Mississippi  basin  ?  If  a  hundred  people  lived 
on  each  square  mile,  how  many  inhabitants  would  this 
basin  have  ?  If  this  basin  were  divided  up  into  farms 
of  640  acres  (a  section),  how  many  farms  would  there 
be?  If  there  were  raised  on  each  farm  1,820  bushels 
of  wheat,  how  many  bushels  would  be  raised  in  the 
whole  basin  ?  Draw  (pupils)  the  water-parting  and  in- 
dicate the  mountains ;  draw  the  rivers.  How  high  is 
the  source  slope?  How  high  above  the  ocean  level 
must  one  be  in  order  to  step  over  the  Mississippi  water- 
parting  into  the  Winnipeg  basin  ?  Write  a  description 
of  the  Mississippi  basin.  Mold  North  America  (pupils) 
and  put  in  all  the  modifications  just  learned. 

Mackenzie  basin.  Bound.  Draw  (pupils)  water- 
parting.  Bound  the  left  slope.  The  right  slope.  De- 
scribe the  upper  part  of  the  left  slope.  The  lower. 
The  upper  part  of  right  slope.  Compare  the  right 
slope  with  left  slope.  Draw  water-parting  and  trace 
the  rivers.  What  lakes  are  in  this  basin  ?  What  effect 
has  the  frozen  river  upon  the  lakes  ?  Where,  in  spring 
or  summer,  does  the  snow  melt  first  ?  Why  ?  What 
effect  has  the  freshet  upon  the  river  valley  ?  What  do 
you  think  about  the  vegetation  in  this  valley?  The 
area  of  this  basin  is  442,000  square  miles ;  how  much 
larger  is  the  Mississippi  basin?  How  many  times 
larger?  Compare  the  Mississippi  basin  with  the  Mac- 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  205 

kenzie  basin.     In  what  do  they  resemble  each  other? 
In  what  do  they  differ  ? 

Hudson's  bay  basin.  Bound.  Describe  the  right 
slope.  Bound  the  left  slope.  What  river  brings  the 
most  water  to  Hudson's  bay?  Bound  the  Winnipeg 
basin  (including  the  Saskatchewan),  Red  river  of  the 
North,  Lake  Winnipeg  and  Nelson  river  basins.  How 
is  Lake  Winnipeg  connected  with  Lake  Superior? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  vegetation  of  this  basin  ? 

St.  Lawrence  river  basin  (embracing  the  lake 
basins).  Bound  the  right  slope.  The  left  slope.  De- 
scribe the  upper  part  of  the  left  slope.  Of  the  right 
slope.  Where  has  the  water-parting  the  greatest  alti- 
tude ?  The  least  ?  What  connection  have  the  waters 
of  this  basin  with  the  waters  of  the  Winnipeg  basin  ? 
How  have  the  lakes  been  connected  with  the  Missis- 
sippi ?  With  the  Hudson  river  ?  By  two  canals.  How 
many  lakes  in  this  basin?  How  do  you  think  they 
were  made  ?  How  will  the  lakes,  in  time,  be  changed 
to  a  continuous  river?  Describe  Niagara  Falls.  When 
the  falls  reach  Lake  Erie,  what  will  be  the  result?  In 
what  ways  are  lakes,  in  river  basins,  changed  to  dry 
land ?  Can  you  give  any  good  reason  why  these  lakes 
have  not  yet  been  filled  up  with  sediment?  What 
would  be  the  effect  if  the  waters  of  the  Winnipeg 
basin  flowed  into  Lake  Superior?  Describe -^e  St. 


206  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Lawrence  basin.  Compare  it  with  the  Mississippi 
basin ;  the  Mackenzie  basin.  The  area  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence basin  is  298,000  square  miles.  How  much 
smaller  than  the  Mackenzie  basin?  The  Mississippi 
basin  ?  How  many  times  smaller  than  the  Mississippi 
basin?  In  the  upper  part  of  the  left  slope  of  this 
basin  are  the  Laurentian  hills.  Geologists  tell  us  that 
this  range  was  the  first  land  which  appeared  above  the 
ocean.  One  peculiarity  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  is 
that,  for  a  large  river,  its  water-parting  is  on  the  aver- 
age very  low.  The  upper  part  of  the  basin,  above  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  nowhere  above  1,600  feet. 
Most  rivers,  you  know,  were  once  strings  of  connected 
lakes,  which,  by  erosion  and  the  filling  up  by  eroded 
earth,  have  slowly  changed  the  lakes  to  rivers  and  the 
lake  beds  to  fertile  land.  But  the  St.  Lawrence  basin 
seems  to  be  one  great  exception  to  this  change,  and  the 
fact  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  shortness  of  the  slope 
and  the  low  altitude  of  the  water-parting.  Possibly  if 
the  waters  of  the  Winnipeg  basin  were  turned  into 
Lake  Superior  through  the  string  of  lakes  which  now 
connect  it  with  Lake  Winnipeg,  immense  quantities  of 
silt  from  the  Kocky  mountains  would,  in  time,  transform 
the  beds  of  the  great  lakes  to  dry  land.  The  result 
of  such  a  change  is  evident ;  the  lakes  would  be  filled, 
in  time,  with  silt  and  one  mighty  river  would  flow  from 
the  Western  highlands  to  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  a  river 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  2O/ 

similar  to  the  Amazon.  Commercially,  the  St.  Law- 
rence river,  with  its  lakes,  is  of  great  importance  to 
North  America.  When  the  proposed  Hennepin  canal 
is  made,  great  ships  will  sail  from  what  point  to  what 
point?  What  would  they  carry?  Mold  (pupils)  the 
continent  and  put  in  all  the  modifications  as  now  under- 
stood. Draw  from  the  molded  forms. 

Atlantic  system  of  river  basins.  We  have  so  far 
studied  all  the  great  river  basins  of  the  continent.  We 
will  now  study  the  river  basin  systems.  What  is  a 
river  basin  system?  Several  river  basins  joined  by 
water-partings,  and  forming  one  continuous  slope, 
which  is  drained  into  one  body  of  water. 

Bound  the  Atlantic  river  basin  system  (south  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  basin).  Describe  the  upper  part  of 
the  slope ;  the  lower  part  of  the  slope.  Compare  the 
lower  part  of  the  slope,  north  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson,  with  the  lower  part  south  of  that  point.  De- 
scribe the  tide  water  region.  The  coast  from  the  St. 
Lawrence  basin  to  the  Florida  peninsula.  Why  are 
the  harbors  south  of  the  Hudson  very  few  and  very 
poor?  Where  do  you  find  the  harbors  south  of  the 
Hudson  ?  What  are  the  principal  river  basins  in  this 
slope?  To  what  purpose  are  the  rivers  north  of  the 
Hudson  adapted?  What  parts  of  the  courses  of  the 
rivers  south  of  the  Hudson  are  adapted  to  manufactur- 
ing purposes  ?  Why  ?  In  the  study  of  United  States 


2C>8  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

history  you  will  learn  how  very  important  a  knowledge 
of  this  slope  is.  This  long,  narrow  depression  (point- 
ing), containing  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  river, 
was  the  scene  of  several  battles.  Here  are  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga,  Saratoga  Plains  and  Stony  Point.  The  Poto- 
mac breaks  through  the  Blue  Eidge  at  Harper's  Ferry 
here.  Do  you  know  anything  about  Harper's  Ferry  ? 
What  do  you  know  about  James  river?  What  is 
Florida?  (peninsula.)  How  was  it  made ?  Tell  pupils 
about  the  swamps,  everglades,  keys  and  reefs. 

Alabama  system  of  river  basins.  This  slope  is 
in  reality  an  extension  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  broken  by 
the  peninsula  of  Florida.  Bound.  Describe.  Of  what 
river  basins  does  this  slope  consist  ?  In  what  direction 
do  the  rivers  flow?  Describe  the  upper  part  of  the 
slope.  What  is  the  soil  of  the  lower  part  of  the  slope  ? 
How  do  you  think  this  comparatively  level  plain  was 
formed  ?  Tell  pupils  about  the  Gulf  stream ;  draw  it. 

Texas  system  of  river  basins.  (This  includes  the 
slope  of  the  plateau  of  Mexico.)  Bound.  What  river 
basins  make  this  slope?  Which  is  the  largest  river 
basin?  Describe  the  Kio  Grande  river  basin.  The 
staked  plain.  Why  are  the  rivers  very  short  south  of 
the  Eio  Grande  basin?  Compare  the  Texan  system 
with  the  Alabama  system. 

The  Pacific  river  basin  system.   Bound.  Describe 


NOTES — FII^TH   GRAD3.  209 

the  upper  part  of  this  slope.  The  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains.  The  great  plateau.  The  enclosed  basin. 
Describe  the  lower  part  of  the  slope.  What  mountains 
keep  the  ocean  from  washing  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  range?  What  are  the  principal  river  basins 
that  form  this  slope?  Describe  the  basin  of  the 
Columbia.  The  basin  of  the  Colorado.  Show  pictures 
of  the  canyons.  Describe  the  Sacramento  and  the  San 
Joaquin  basins.  In  the  united  valleys  of  these  rivers 
is  the  fertile  land  of  California.  Compare  this  system 
with  the  Atlantic  system.  What  are  the  most  prom- 
inent differences  ?  If  this  great  slope  formed  the  eastern 
part  of  North  America,  what  do  you  think  the  effect 
would  have  been  upon  the  early  settlements  ? 

Review   of   the    structure    of    North    America. 

Name  the  natural  divisions  of  North  America.  Which 
is  the  largest  ?  The  smallest  ?  Bound  the  primary 
land  mass.  Bound  the  secondary  land  mass.  Eeview 
the  boundaries  of  all  the  natural  divisions.  Be  sure 
to  have  pupils  bound  from  their  mental  pictures  and 
not  from  memorized  words.  In  which  two  natural 
divisions  do  you  find  the  most  resemblances?  In 
which  two  the  greatest  differences?  Which  one  con- 
tains the  most  fertile  land  ?  Which  the  most  barren 
land  ?  Which  natural  divisions  have  the  highest  water- 
partings  ?  Which  the  lowest  ? 


210  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Highlands  are  surfaces  1,000  feet  above  the  ocean 
level;  lowlands  are,  of  course,  surfaces  below  1,000 
feet.  Draw  a  map  and  color  it  to  show  highlands  and 
lowlands.  Of  what  do  highlands  consist?  Mountain 
ranges,  plateaus  and  the  upper  parts  of  long  slopes  or 
terraces.  Of  what  do  lowlands  consist  ?  Generally  of 
plains.  There  are  often  hills  and  low  mountains  in  low- 
lands. The  Ozark  mountains  are  below  2,000  feet  in 
height.  Describe  the  western  highlands ;  the  eastern 
highlands.  From  what  point  to  what  point  could  you 
make  the  longest  journey  on  lowlands  in  North  America, 
traveling  in  one  general  direction  ?  How  many  great 
plains  are  there  in  this  continent  ?  One.  The  valleys 
of  what  river  basins  form  this  plain  ?  If  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  should  rise  500  feet,  what  parts 
of  North  America  would  be  flooded?  See  physical 
map.  What  two  large  islands  would  be  formed? 

Continental  islands.  Mold  with  continent  West 
Indies,  Bahama  islands,  New  Foundland,  Cape  Breton 
island,  Prince  Edward's,  Anticosti,  Queen  Charlotte's 
and  Vancouver's  islands.  How  do  you  think  these 
islands  were  formed? 

Rivers.  What  rivers  are  useful  for  commerce? 
What  for  manufacturing?  Name  the  longest  river. 
What  rivers  flow  in  their  entire  course  through  high- 
lands ?  What  rivers  flow  their  entire  course  through 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  211 

lowlands  ?     What  large  rivers  rise  in  highlands  ?     In 
lowlands  ? 

Have  pupils  mold  North  America ;  draw  it,  putting 
in  all  the  natural  divisions ;  then  have  them  write  very 
carefully  a  description  of  the  continent.  In  writing 
descriptions  train  them  to  write. 

Climate  and  soil.  Without  going  much  into  de- 
tails, teach  pupils  something  of  heat  and  cold,  the 
changes  from  one  to  the  other,  and  the  causes  of  the 
changes.  Also  teach  the  direction  and  changes  of 
the  winds ;  the  evaporation  and  condensation  of  moist- 
ure; the  rainfall  and  all  the  essentials  in  climate 
which  assist  vegetation.  Lead  pupils  to  discover, 
through  the  structure  and  climate,  the  different  kinds 
of  soil.  Where  is  the  very  fertile  soil  ?  What  is  alluv- 
ial soil?  Where  is  the  fertile  soil?  Arable  soil? 
Barren  soil?  Tell  the  causes  of  each  kind  of  soil. 
In  what  part  of  the  Mississippi  basin  do  you  find 
the  most  fertile  soil?  Why?  Why  is  not  the  lower 
part  of  the  Atlantic  slope  as  fertile  as  the  lower  parts 
of  the  Mississippi  slopes  ?  Slopes  of  what  kind  deposit 
great  quantities  of  alluvium?  Why? 

Vegetation.     Give  lessons  upon  the  principal  veg- 
etable products  used  for:       1.    Food.       2.    Clothing. 
3.     Shelter.      4.    Manufactured   articles.       5.     Med- 
icine.     6.   Fuel.      7.   Luxury.     Have  pupils  tell  you, 


212  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

first,  of  all  the  staple  food  plants.  Which  food  plant- is 
used  the  most?  Why  do  you  think  so?  What  plant 
stands  next  in  order?  Next?  How  is  wheat  prepared 
for  use  ?  Corn  ?  Have  pupils  find  localities  (areas  of 
land)  best  adapted  to  raising  wheat,  corn,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  grass,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  peanuts,  sugar 
cane,  sorghum,  beans,  peas;  fruits,  like  the  apple, 
peach,  orange,  fig,  grape,  etc.  What  kind  of  soil  is 
adapted  to  each  ?  Draw  a  map  on  the  board  and  write 
the  name  of  each  product  upon  the  locality  where  it 
is  raised.  What  plants  are  used  for  clothing?  Where 
is  cotton  raised  ?  Sea  island  cotton  ?  Where  are  flax 
and  hemp  raised  ?  How  is  cotton  cloth  manufactured  ? 
Where  is  it  manufactured  ? 

Before  the  subject  of  shelter  is  taken  up,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  examine  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  continent. 
Tell  me  all  the  materials  used  for  building  purposes. 
Write  the  list.  What  kind  of  material  is  used  the 
most?  Discussion.  What  kinds  of  wood?  Locate 
the  forests  on  the  map.  What  are  the  principal  woods 
used  in  building  ?  Where  do  you  find  the  most  pine  ? 
Oak?  Maple?  For  what  are  maple  trees  used  except 
for  building  and  fuel  ?  Name  the  articles  of  house  furni- 
ture. Write  list..  Of  what  are  they  made  ?  Tell  pupils 
of  the  great  trees  of  California,  the  pines  of  Michigan, 
Maine  and  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast,  and  of  the  live 
oaks  and  palmettos.  For  what  purpose  is  cedar  used  ? 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  213 

What  are  the  ornamental  woods  ?     Where  are  mahog- 
any, rose  wood,  gum  wood,  black  walnut  found  ? 

What  kinds  of  minerals  are  used  for  building? 
What  mineral  is  the  most  used  ?  How  are  bricks  made  /' 
Of  what  use  is  clay,  except  in  making  bricks  ?  What 
kinds  of  stone  are  used?  How  is  building  stone  quar- 
ried? Draw  a  map  and  locate  minerals.  Have  speci- 
mens of  woods  and  minerals.  Where  is  granite  found  ? 
Limestone  ?  Marble  ?  (Of  what  is  marble  composed  ?) 
Slate?  Sandstone?  For  what  is  limestone  .used? 
Name  all  the  metals.  Have  specimens.  What  metal 
is  used  the  most?  Locate -iron  mines.  Give  me  all 
the  uses  of  iron.  How  are  railroads  built  and  equip- 
ped ?  What  is  steel  ?  What  is  the  Bessemer  process 
of  making  steel?  For  what  is  copper  used?  Tin? 
Zinc?  Quicksilver?  Locate  all  the  useful  metals. 
How  are  they  mined  ?  Show  pictures.  What  are  the 
precious  metals  ?  Describe  the  gold  and  silver  mines 
of  the  Pacific  slope,  and  the  different  kinds  of  mining ; 
hydraulic,  cradle,  mining  quartz,  etc.  The  map  should 
show  by  different  colors  the  areas  in  which  each  min- 
eral is  found.  What  materials  are  used  for  fuel? 
What  is  coal?  Tell  the  story  of  the  "Stored  up  Sun- 
light." Show  specimens  with  ferns,  etc.  What  are 
the  different  kinds  of  coal?  Mark  off  the  areas  where 
coal  is  found.  In  what  localities  are  iron  and  coal 
found?  Why  is  it  very  important  to  find  them  to- 


214  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

gether?  Visit  a  rolling  mill  if  convenient.  Describe 
the  iron  furnaces  and  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania. 
What  is  petroleum?  Where  is  it  found?  How  ob- 
tained? What  is  gas?  How  is  it  made?  What  is 
natural  gas  ?  Where  found  ?  Tell  pupils  how  natural 
gas  is  conveyed  long  distances  in  pipes  to  be  used  for 
heating,  cooking,  etc.  Write  a  list  of  the  most  im- 
portant manufactured  articles.  What  article  used  with 
food  is  found  in  mines  ?  How  is  the  salt  made  that  is 
not  found  in  mines  ?  For  what  purposes  is  paper  used  ? 
Of  what  materials  is  paper  made?  How  is  paper 
made  ?  Tell  pupils  of  paper  car  wheels.  What  plants 
are  used  for  luxury?  Where  is  tobacco  raised? 
Coffee  ?  Kaisins  ?  What  plants  are  used  for  medicines  ? 

Animals.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  wild  animals  you 
can  think  of.  Write  a  list  of  domestic  animals. 
What  domestic  animals  are  used  for  food  ?  What  wild 
animals  are  used  for  food  ?  What  animals  are  raised 
for  food  ?  Draw  map  and  indicate  the  localities  where 
the  animals  live.  The  flesh  of  what  animals  is  used 
the  most  for  food  ?  Tell  pupils  of  the  buffaloes  of  the 
prairies  and  how  they  have  disappeared ;  of  the  great 
cattle  and  sheep  ranches  of  the  West ;  of  hog  raising 
and  packing  houses ;  of  the  fisheries  on  the  Great  Bank 
of  New  Foundland ;  of  the  salmon  fisheries  of  Oregon 
and  Alaska.  What  staple  articles  of  food  are  furnished 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  215 

by  the  hog?  What  other  articles  are  manufactured 
out  of  bristles,  bones,  etc.  ? 

Name  all  the  animals  used  for  clothing.  What 
animal  gives  more  in  the  way  of  clothing  to  man  than 
any  other  ?  How  is  wool  manufactured  ?  What  articles 
are  made  of  wool?  What  kinds  of  hair  are  used 
for  clothing?  Name  all  the  kinds  of  skins  that  are 
used  for  clothing.  For  what  article  of  clothing  is  the 
greatest  quantity  of  skins  used?  The  skins  of  what 
animals  are  used  to  make  leather?  How  is  leather 
manufactured  ?  What  articles  except  boots  and  shoes 
are  made  of  leather?  What  do  birds  do  in  the  way 
of  helping  us  to  clothing  ? 

Name  all  the  animals  used  for  transportation. 
What  animal  is  used  more  than  any  other  for  transpor- 
tation ?  What  is  the  most  useful  animal  for  transpor- 
tation next  to  the  horse  ?  Describe  the  horse  ranches 
of  the  plains. 

Political  divisions.  The  best  way  to  teach  the 
political  divisions  is  to  wait  until  the  structure  of  all 
the  continents  has  been  taught  and  then  teach  them  all 
together.  The  history  of  the  United  States  is  taught 
in  this  grade,  and  all  special  political  geography  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  that  subject.  Boundaries, 
cities,  colonies,  states,  should  be  taught  as  the  subject 
is  developed.  Before  leaving  the  structural  teaching  of 


2l6  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

North  America,  the  political  boundaries  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  United  States,  Mexico  and  Guatemala 
may  be  profitably  taught.  Indicate  boundary  lines  by 
putting  a  colored  thread  upon  the  molded  map.  Draw 
the  map  on  the  board  and  mark  off  the  boundary  lines 
by  red  crayon.  Over  what  do  the  boundary  lines  run  ? 
Where  do  political  boundaries  coincide  with  natural 
lines  ?  What  is  a  political  division  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  a  political  division?  Tell  the  government  of  each. 
Describe,  by  writing,  (pupils)  each  political  division; 
highlands,  lowlands,  mountains,  plains,  river  basins, 
lakes,  rivers,  coasts,  coast  line,  climate,  soil,  vegetable 
products,  minerals,  natural  advantages  for  commerce  and 
manufactures.  These  descriptions  will  be  an  excellent 
test  of  how  well  you  have  taught  the  continent.  The 
usual  form  of  map  questions  may  be  used  very  profit- 
ably, providing  pupils  answer  from  mental  pictures  and 
not  from  memorized  words.  When  there  is  any  indica- 
tion of  this  fatal  habit,  change  your  questions  so  that 
pupils  will  be  compelled  to  think  of  the  reality.  Where 
is  Hudson's  bay  ?  Isthmus  of  California  ?  Locate  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains;  the  Hudson  river,  Lake 
Superior,  etc.,  etc. 

Language.  It  seems  needless  to  refer  to  the  innu- 
merable opportunities  presented  for  teaching  language, 
both  oral  and  written.  The  habit  of  perfect  accuracy 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  ,       217 

should  be  cultivated  by  training  pupils  to  be  accurate 
in  every  sentence,  written  or  spoken.  Each  new  word 
should  be  written  on  the  blackboard  in  the  best  hand 
writing  the  moment  your  pupils  obtain  the  appropriate 
idea.  Have  many  written  descriptions.  Train  pupils  to 
describe  from  their  own  mental  pictures.  Have  them 
give  the  general  first,  following  it  with  the  main  particu- 
lars in  the  general.  Train  pupils  to  use  the  dictionary 
and  to  know  when  they  do  not  know  a  word,  and  never 
to  write  a  word  unless  they  know  its  meaning.  Put 
simple  rules  for  punctuation  and  use  of  capitals  on  the 
board  and  have  pupils  apply  them.  If  a  paper  has  a 
single  mistake  upon  it,  hand  it  back  and  have  the  paper  re- 
written. 

If  pupils  write  in  a  painful,  cramped  hand,  they 
will  never  enjoy  writing;  the  beautiful,  graceful  and 
easy  arm-movement  should  always  be  used. 

Number.  Teachers  can  get  a  glimpse  from  the 
foregoing  suggestions  of  the  great  necessity  for  using 
numbers  in  measurement  and  comparison  of  measure- 
ments in  developing  their  pupils'  ideas  of  distance, 
heights  and  areas.  Many  problems  should  be  made 
involving  such  measurements.  There  is  no  use  in 
memorizing  distances  and  areas;  the  problems,  if  prop- 
erly used,  will  be  sufficient. 

Drawing.     Have  pupils  draw  continually.     A  good 


2l8  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

test  of  your  teaching  would  be  to  place  on  the  wall  (for 
the  first  time)  a  good  physical  map,  after  the  continent 
has  been  taught,  and  have  pupils  describe  the  continent 
from  the  map.  Stanford's  and  Guyot's  are  the  best 
physical  maps  now  in  use. 

Reading.  A  carefully  selected  list  of  reading  mat- 
ter is  given  elsewhere.  Guyot's  Common  School  Geog- 
raphy is  the  best  text-book  on  geography  to  read  with 
the  study  of  structural  geography.  A  great  part  of  the 
reading  may  be  profitably  given  to  descriptions  of  the 
continent  taught. 

SOUTH   AMERICA. 

The  best  test  of  the  power  acquired  by  the  teach- 
ing of  a  subject  is  the  zest  and  ability  with  which 
pupils  take  up  the  succeeding  step.  If  North  America 
has  been  well  taught,  it  will  furnish  both  the  power  and 
the  means  of  studying  all  the  continents.  Test  your 
pupils  by  placing  a  well-molded  map  of  South  America 
before  them,  and  have  them  analyze  and  describe  it, 
giving  them  the  names  as  they  discover  the  natural 
divisions.  Ask  questions  only  as  pupils  need  them  to 
quicken  their  observations. 

If  this  plan  should  fail,  try  the  one  given  in  Notes 
Upon  North  America.  Mold  the  continent.  Where  is 
the  continental  axis  ?  Trace  it.  Compare  it  with  the 
continental  axis  of  North  America.  Into  what  does  it 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  219 

divide  South  America?  Compare  the  short  slope  of 
South  America  with  the  short  slope  of  North  America. 
Which  is  the  longer  slope  ?  (east  and  west.)  What  in 
North  America  resembles  Chili?  What  resembles 
Patagonia  ?  To  what  in  North  America  can  you  com- 
pare the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ?  The  western  coast  of 
Patagonia  has  many  islands  that  once  formed  a  part  of 
the  mountain  range;  what  resembles  this  in  North 
America  ?  What  is  the  greatest  difference  between  the 
two  short  slopes?  Give  any  other  differences.  Draw 
the  Pacific  coast  line  of  North  America  and  near  it  the 
Pacific  coast  line  of  South  America.  Compare.  Com- 
pare the  long  slope  of  South  America  with  the  long 
slope  of  North  America.  Give  all  the  resemblances 
you  can.  Have  pupils  see  resemblances  without  assist- 
ance ;  if  they  do  not,  ask  questions  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: Compare  La  Plata  basin  with  the  Mississippi 
basin.  Main  tributary  of  Panama,  on  left  slope,  with 
the  Ohio.  Amazon  basin  with  St.  Lawrence  basin. 
Madeira  basin  with  the  Missouri  basin.  Marajo  island 
with  New  Foundland.  Orinoco  with  Mackenzie.  Gulf 
of  Venezuela  and  Lake  Maracaibo  with  Hudson's  bay. 
Brazilian  river  basin  system  with  the  Atlantic  river 
basin  system.  Guiana  system  with  the  Labrador-At- 
lantic slope.  Guiana  slope  with  the  Atlantic  slope 
south  of  Hudson  river.  Patagonian  system  with  the 
Texan  system.  Magdalena  river  basin  with  the  Yukon 


220  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

river  basin.  Compare  the  great  western  highlands  of 
the  two  continents.  Length,  4,550  miles;  how  much 
longer  are  the  North  American  highlands  ?  "What  have 
the  Andes  to  compare  with  the  parks  of  the  Eocky 
mountains*?  Compare  the  Brazilian  highlands  with 
the  Appalachian  highlands.  Guiana  highlands  with 
the  Labrador  highlands;  with  the  Appalachian  high- 
lands. The  Atlantic  coast  lines  of  the  two  continents. 
The  coast  line  of  the  Caribbean  sea  with  that  of  the 
Arctic  ocean.  The  lesser  Antilles  with  Baffinland. 
The  great  central  plains  of  the  two  continents.  South 
America  is  3,200  miles  broad ;  what  is  the  difference 
between  the  breadth  of  South  America  and  North 
America?  Name  ten  resemblances  between  North 
America  and  South  America.  Name  ten  differences. 
By  these  comparisons,  if  skilfully  conducted,  the  pupils 
will  soon  acquire  a  clear  picture  of  South  America.  A 
detailed  study  may  be  made  as  suggested  in  studying 
North  America.  In  teaching,  mold  each  natural  division 
as  the  study  proceeds. 

Amazon  basin. 
La  Plata  basin. 
Orinoco  basin. 
Brazilian  system. 


Long  Slope. 


Guiana  system. 
Patagonia  system. 
Brazilian  highlands. 
Guiana  highlands. 
Great  Central  plain. 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  221 

{Coast  ranges. 
Slope  of  Patagonia. 
Sloje  of  Chili 
Desert  of  Atacama. 

Ranges. 

Knots. 

Peaks. 


Andes  Mountain   System. 


Yolcanos. 
Enclosed  basins. 
Source  of  Amazon. 
Magdalena  river  basin. 
Maracaibo  basin. 


Bound,  describe,  mold,  draw,  icrite. 

The  story  of  the  Incas  and  the  Conquest  of  Peru 
by  Pizarro  may  be  read  to  add  interest  to  the  study  of 
the  Andes.  Tell  pupils  about  the  mountain  knots  and 
valleys  in  the  Andes,  about  the  silver  mines,  etc.  De- 
scribe the  three  divisions  of  the  great  central  plain ; 
llanos,  selvas  and  pampas.  Mold  the  basin  of  the 
Orinoco.  Describe  the  right  slope.  A  mountainous 
slope ;  the  river  runs  close  to  the  Guiana  highlands. 
Bound  the  left  slope.  Compare  the  surface  of  the  left 
slope  with  the  surface  of  the  right  slope.  The  lower 
part  of  the  left  slope  is  a  very  large  level  plain.  It 
was  once,  they  say,  the  bottom  of  a  gulf.  The 
ocean  flowed  in  here  (pointing)  and  flooded  this  de- 
pression or  valley.  Slowly  the  ground-up  rock  (silt) 
was  washed  down  from  the  mountains  on  every  side  by 
the  rain,  the  brooks  and  the  rivers,  and  up  from  the 
ocean  by  the  waves  and  the  tides  until  the  land  was 


222  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  By  and  by  the  marsh 
grasses,  bulrushes  and  flags  began  to  grow  and  the 
land  grew  firmer.  Then  meadow  grass  and  flowers 
sprang  up,  and  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  became  a  vast 
plain  covered  with  tall  grass  and  bright  flowering  plants. 
It  is  very  warm  here ;  indeed  it  is  hot,  for  the  great  sun 
shines,  twice  in  the  year,  right  over  the  plain.  We  say 
that  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical.  What  is  a  vertical 
line?  The  great  heat  of  the  vertical  rays  takes  up 
from  the  ocean  into  the  air  (evaporates)  a  great  quan- 
tity of  water,  which  becomes  so  heavy  up  in  the  clouds 
that  it  tumbles  back  in  rain,  The  rain  gives  the  grass 
roots  plenty  to  drink  and  they  grow  fresh,  green  and 
tall.  Vast  herds  of  horses  and  cattle  fatten  upon  the 
grass  and  run  and  gallop  over  the  plains  to  show  how 
happy  they  are.  The  great  river  is  swollen  by  the 
floods  and  thousands  of  alligators  play  in  its  waters. 
Tortoises  are  as  plenty  as  blackberries ;  they  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  muddy  bank  for  the  hot  sun  to  hatch.  All 
is  full  of  life  and  joy.  Then  the  sun  moves  away  from 
overhead.  The  rays  slant  a  little  and  the  rain  ceases 
to  fall.  What  happens  then  ?  The  grass,  with  no  water 
to  drink,  dries  up ;  the  vast  plain  becomes  brown  with 
dead  grass ;  the  poor  horses  with  no  grass  to  eat,  no 
water  to  drink,  run  from  place  to  place,  their  tongues 
lolling,  seeking  in  vain  for  food  and  water.  Thousands 
of  them  fall  down  and  die,  leaving  their  bones  to  bleach 


NOTES — FIFTH   GRADE.  223 

in  the  torrid  sun.  The  swollen  river  grows  smaller 
and  smaller,  leaves  its  banks  and  flows  over  a  far  nar- 
rower bed.  The  alligators  and  tortoises  are  fastened 
securely  in  the  hard,  dry  mud  and  all  is  still — still  as 
death,  waiting  for  the  vertical  rays  to  come  again  and 
give  them  water  and  life.  The  sun  comes  ;  slowly  over 
head  the  ball  of  fire  moves  ;  the  rain  pours  down  again  ; 
the  grass  springs  up  ;  the  horses  neigh  for  joy ;  the  huge 
creatures  open  their  eyes  and  crawl  out  of  the  mud. 
Everywhere  is  teeming  life. 

A  description  of  the  forests  of  the  Amazon  would 
interest  pupils.  The  tangled  woods,  tropical  plants, 
the  caoutchouc  tree  and  the  gathering  of  the  gum,  the 
monkeys,  parrots,  etc.  The  pampas  with  its  tall  grass 
and  vast  herds  of  cattle ;  Brazil  with  its  diamond  mines 
and  coffee  plantations ;  Patagonia  and  the  Land  of 
Fire ;  Guiana  with  its  building  coasts ;  the  llamas  and 
condors  of  the  Andes  ;  the  wonderful  Cassiquiare  river ; 
the  portages  between  the  basins  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
La  Plata  are  all  very  interesting  subjects  and  de- 
scriptions of  them  will  assist  in  making  the  mental  pict- 
ures of  the  structure  clearer. 

Follow  the  same  plan  as  in  North  America  in  re- 
gard to  teaching  climate,  soil,  vegetation,  animals, 
mines  and  manufactures.  Draw  a  map  on  the  board 
and  divide  the  continent  into  its  political  divisions; 
have  pupils  describe  the  structure,  river  basins,  climate, 


224  HOW  To   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

soil,  vegetation,  mines,  advantages  for  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  each  division.  Compare  Brazil  with 
the  United  States ;  the  Argentine  Republic  with  Mexico ; 
Chili  with  California.  Draw  North  America  and  South 
America  in  their  relative  positions  and  then  compare 
them. 

Elementary  lessons  in  physics  should  be  given  in 
this  grade ;  lessons  upon  air,  water  and  heat,  such  as 
evaporation,  condensation,  movements  of  air  (winds), 
density  of  air,  deposition  of  sediment,  effects  of  frost, 
erosion,  etc. 

SIXTH   GRADE. 

Review  very  thoroughly  all  previous  work. 

EURASIA. 

Europe  and  Asia,  forming  one  continent,  should  be 
taught  as  one  great  mass  of  land.  It  is  far  more  diffi- 
cult to  teach  than  either  North  or  South  America  owing 
to  two  facts;  (1)  the  land  mass  is  in  itself  more  com- 
plex; (2)  comparatively  little  of  the  highest  parts  of 
Asia  is  accurately  known.  It  is  not  easy  to  trace  the 
continental  axis,  as  this  line  from  Bering  strait  to  the 
Pamir  has  not  been  topographically  surveyed.  Author- 
ities differ  in  many  particulars.  Mold  the  map  of 
Eurasia  and  indicate,  in  sand,  the  continental  axis. 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE. 

The  following  description  is  presented  as  a  guide  to  the 
teacher's  study  in  preparing  lessons. 

The  continental  axis.  Kising  out  of  the  Frozen 
Ocean  at  Bering  strait,  hardly  thirty-six  miles  from  the 
American  continent,  is  the  beginning  of  this  long  axis, 
extending  10,000  miles  from  East  Cape  to  Cape  Finis- 
terre  (end  of  the  land).  It  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  con- 
tinental axis  of  North  and  South  America  taken  to- 
gether. From  Bering  Strait  it  is  borne  on  the  crests 
of  the  Stanavoi  and  Yablanoi  ranges  (Yablanoi  means 
apple  tree)  for  a  long  distance.  These  ranges  extend 
in  a  southerly  direction,  skirting  the  sea  of  Okotsk  and 
turning  a  little  toward  the  west. 

Just  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  the  Yablanoi 
mountains  run  along  the  coast  of  the  sea  of  Okotsk  about 
600  miles.  One  branch  of  these  mountains  joins  the 
Altai,  while  another,  broken  by  the  basin  of  the  Amur, 
extends  to  the  south.  This  branch  or  range  is  called, 
south  of  the  Amur  basin,  the  Great  Kingan;  there 
are  probably  many  other  names.  South  of  the  Amur 
basin  the  Kingan  mountains  form  the  western  enclosing 
wall  of  the  great  central  plateau  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  slope  toward  the  coast  line  of  the  Pacific.  The 
Chinese  wall  crosses  it  and  runs  for  400  miles  upon  its 
eastern  flank.  Through  this  range  breaks  the  Golden 
river  (the  Hoang-Ho).  This  range  extends  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  for  nearly  1,500  miles  from  the 


226  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Amur  basin,  where  it  joins  the  mighty  mountain  range 
which  extends  nearly  due  west  from  the  Pamir  (the  Eoof 
of  the  World).  This  massive  range  is  called  the  Kuen 
Lun.  From  the  Kingan,  or  the  southern  extension  of 
the  Kingan,  the  Kuen  Lun  range  runs  west  for  more 
than  1,500  miles,  when  it  comes  to  that  meeting  of 
mountain  ranges,  the  Pamir.  The  Kuen  Lun  walls  in 
the  high  plateau  of  Thibet  and  separates  it  from  the 
vast  plateau  of  Gobi  on  the  north  — 1,500  miles  of 
snow,  ice  and  towering  peaks.  It  has  been  supposed 
for  a  long  time  that  the  Himalaya  range  supports  this 
continental  axis,  but  later  explorations  show  that  the 
Kuen  Lun  range  has  that  honor.  It  has  a  higher  aver- 
age height  than  the  Himalayas.  The  Kuen  Lun,  Him- 
alaya and  Thian  Shan  ranges  come  together  and  form 
an  immense  mass  of  mountains,  the  Eoof  of  the  World. 
From  the  Pamir  the  Hindu  Kush,  a  range  worthy 
of  the  Pamir,  pushes  its  way  toward  the  west  and 
then  sinks  down  in  a  comparatively  low  mountain  range 
until  it  rises  in  the  great  Mount  Demavend,  just  south 
of  the  Caspian  sea.  The  mountains  over  which  the  con- 
tinental axis  runs,  from  the  Pamir  to  Asia  Minor,  form 
the  northern  wall  of  the  plateau  of  Iran  and  the  Armen- 
ian highlands.  There  is  a  question  about  this  line  of 
the  continental  axis;  some  authorities  would  send  it 
south  from  the  Pamir  along  the  Solyman  mountains  to 
the  Arabian  sea  and  then  east  on  the  southern  rim  of 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  227" 

the  plateau.  As  the  mountain  range  (Elburz  and 
Taurus)  enters  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor  it  seems  to 
bend  to  the  south,  where  it  slopes  directly  into  the 
Mediterranean  sea.  Just  at  the  foot  of  this  slope 
(pointing)  Alexander  the  Great  nearly  lost  his  whole 
army  trying  to  pass  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea. 
The  mountains  of  Asia  Minor  sink  into  the  Jilgean  sea, 
rising  again  into  many  beautiful  islands.  Just  where 
the  continental  axis  runs  from  the  Taurus  to  the  Balkan 
mountains  is  not  known.  The  Dardanelles  break  the 
continuity  of  the  mountain  mass,  but  only  for  a  very 
short  distance.  (Stories  of  Leander  and  of  Xerxes.)  The 
Balkan  mountains  take  up  the  continental  axis  west  of 
the  Dardanelles,  and  joining  theDinaric  Alps  reach 
the  great  highland  of  Europe,  the  Alps.  It  is  nearly 
800  miles  from  the  Dardanelles  to  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  real  Alps.  This  great  mountain  mass  trends 
toward  the  west  and  then  curves  toward  the  south,  form- 
ing a  mighty  arch  that  protects  Italy  from  the  cold 
north  winds  and  from  invading  hordes.  The  continental 
axis  runs  over  the  southern  rim  of  these  highlands, 
which  overlook  the  rich  fields  of  the  Po.  The  Alps 
curve  toward  the  south  and  send  off  a  long  spur  or 
branch,  which  runs  down  in  a  southwesterly  direction 
into  the  Mediterranean  sea,  forming  the  boot-shaped 
peninsula  of  Italy.  The  continental  axis  sinks  into  the 
basin  of  the  Ehone,  to  rise  again  in  great  prominence 


228  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

in  the  Pyrenees,  which  form  the  northern  protecting 
buttress  of  the  peninsula  of  Spain.  The  range  of  the 
Pyrenees  extends  westward  in  the  Cantabrian  range, 
which  projects  out  into  the  Atlantic  and  forms  Cape 
Finisterre  (the  end  of  the  land).  Trace  the  continental 
axis  of  America  and  Eurasia  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape 
Finisterre ;  give  the  mountain  ranges  over  which  it 
runs.  Compare  the  continental  axis  of  America  with 
the  continental  axis  of  Eurasia.  This  continental  axis 
divides  Eurasia,  as  you  see,  into  two  great  slopes.  How 
broad  is  each  slope?  East  and  west?  Compare  the 
long  slope  with  that  of  South  America.  With  the  long 
slope  of  North  America.  Compare  the  short  slopes. 

The  Highlands  of  Asia.  You  see,  at  once,  how 
this  immense  land  mass  differs  from  the  primary  high 
land  of  the  Americas.  The  main  difference,  however, 
is  in  breadth  and  height.  We  will  begin  on  the 
Eoof  of  the  World  (Pamir).  Here  the  great  mountain 
ranges  of  Asia  have  a  grand  meeting,  narrowing  the 
immense  highland  to  something  like  an  isthmus. 
On  the  south  the  land  sinks  into  the  basin  of  the 
Indus ;  on  the  north  into  the  basin  of  the  Amoo  Daria 
(the  ancient  Oxus).  From  the  Pamir  the  snow-crowned 
Himalaya  range  extends  toward  the  east  in  a  magnifi- 
cent curve,  presenting  its  arc  to  the  basins  of  the  Indus, 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  while  its  convex  side  walls 


NOTES — vSIXTH   GRADE. 


229 


in  the  loftiest  and  grandest  plateau  of  the  world,  Thibet, 
which  is  from  10,000  to  11,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Indian  ocean.  The  mighty  curved  wall  of  the 
Himalayas  is  the  southern  buttress  of  Thibet.  Through 
these  towering,  snow-clad  mountains  three  great  rivers 
make  their  way,  gathering  the  ice-cold  waters  from  the 
northern  slope  of  the  range.  The  Indus  breaks  through 
at  the  western  end  of  the  plateau,  after  flowing  450 
miles  along  the  base  of  the  northern  slope.  The  Sutlej 
or  Ghara,  a  tributary  of  the  Indus,  rises  near  the  source 
of  the  Indus  and  plunges  through  the  mountain  wall 
350  miles  east  of  the  place  where  the  Indus  reaches  the 
plain.  But  the  grandest  plunge  of  all  these  remark- 
able rivers  is  made  by  the  Brahmaputra,  200  miles  from 
the  eastern  end  of  the  plateau.  The  Sanpoo,  the  upper 
course  of  the  Brahmaputra,  rises  near  the  source  of  the 
Sutlej  and  flows  east  under  the  awful  heights  of  the 
Himalayas  for  more  than  TOO  miles,  then  it  turns  to- 
ward the  mountain  which  supplies  its  torrents  and 
plunges  over  precipices  and  roars  through  the  yawning 
chasms  until  it  reaches  the  level  plain  below.  The 
Ganges  takes  its  floods  from  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Himalayas.  You  see  that  these  immense  mountains 
are  something  more  than  grand  objects  to  behold ;  their 
snow-covered  tops  and  vast  rivers  of  ice  make  the  hot 
plains  of  India  capable  of  supporting  many  millions  of 
inhabitants.  Indeed,  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  the 


230  HOW  TO  STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

ground-up  rock  of  the  mountains,  carried  down  by  the 
swollen  rivers,  made  the  plain  itself.  The  Himalayas 
guard  some  wonderful  secrets.  Very  little  is  known  of 
the  people  who  dwell  north  of  their  icy  walls,  or  of  their 
mysterious  religion.  The  secret  of  the  Sanpoo  was 
guarded  for  ages  hy  a  race  of  warlike  men,  living  in  the 
mountain  fastnesses  where  the  Sanpoo  joins  the  Brah- 
maputra. It  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  this  fact 
has  been  discovered. 

The  northern  enclosing  wall  of  Thibet  is  the  Kuen 
Lun  range,  over  which  runs  the  continental  axis.  The 
northern  slope  of  this  range  descends  to  the  plateau  of 
Gobi,  at  least  6,000  feet  below  the  plateau  of  Thibet. 
From  the  western  end  of  the  latter  plateau  a  vast  range 
runs  easterly  nearly  through  the  plateau.  This  range 
is  called  the  Karakoruin  mountains.  Thus  we  have  the 
high  plateau  of  Thibet  enclosed  by  the  Himalayas  on 
the  south,  the  Kuen  Lun  on  the  north  and  penetrated 
by  the  Karakorum  range.  Cold  winds  sweep  this  lofty 
mountain  plateau,  with  little  rain  except  that  which  the 
snow-capped  peaks  send  down. 

Now  we  will  go  back  to  the  Eoof  of  the  World 
again.  The  united  ranges  which  form  the  Pamir  ex- 
tend north  for  nearly  two  hundred  miles.  From  this 
point  the  Thian  Shan  range  sends  out  its  great  mount- 
ain mass  toward  the  northeast.  The  Thian  Shan 
mountains  join  the  Altai  mountains,  and  together  they 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  23! 

form  the  northern  enclosing  wall  of  the  great  plateau 
Gobi.  The  Altai  mountains. join  the  Yablanoi  range  in 
the  northeast.  We  should  make  a  great  mistake  if  we 
should  imagine  the  Thian  Shan  and  Altai  to  be  a  regu- 
lar range  like  the  Sierra  Nevadas  or  the  Andes.  All 
the  way  from  the  Pamir  to  the  Stanavoi  mountains,  the 
mountains  which  form  the  northern  fringe  of  Gobi  send 
out  into  the  Siberian  plain  great  mountainous  penin- 
sulas. Deep  trenches  are  torn  out  of  the  flanks  of  the 
plateau  edge  like  huge  railroad  cuts.  It  may  be  that 
the  trenches  were  cut  by  the  spring  torrents  that  flood 
the  river  basins  below  and  carry  down  immense  quan- 
tities of  bowlders,  gravel,  sand  and  torn  up  trees ;  or  it 
may  be  that  the  waves  of  the  Arctic  ocean  once  made 
these  trenches  as  the  Atlantic  is  now  cutting  the  fiords 
in  Norway.  The  plateau  of  Gobi  is  much  lower  than 
Thibet ;  it  is  from  5,000  to  2,000  feet  above  the  ocean 
level ;  a  vast  dreary  waste  of  mountains,  bowlders  and 
sand.  The  plateau  (Gobi  and  Thibet  taken  as  one)  is  en- 
closed by  the  Himalayas  on  the  south,  Thian  Shan  and 
Altai  mountains  on  the  northwest,  and  the  Kingan 
mountains  close  the  triangle  on  the  east.  It  forms  a 
continent  within  a  continent ;  and  indeed,  if  you  will  look 
closely,  you  will  observe  its  shape  to  be  very  much  like 
that  of  South  America. 

The  primary  Highlands  of  Europe.     The  primary 


232  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

highlands  of  Europe  are  in  some  respects  the  primary 
highlands  of  Asia  in  miniature.  Put  the  Alps  down  at 
the  southern  base  of  the  Himalayas  and  they  would 
seem  like  foothills ;  take  them  alone  as  the  highlands 
and  they  are  very  grand.  We  have  already  traced  the 
continental  axis.  Eising  from  the  Dinaric  Alps  that 
look  down  upon  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic,  the  great 
mountain  mass  of  Europe  towers  above  the  valley  of 
the  Po  and  the  plateau  of  Central  Europe.  About  350 
miles  in  extent  and  from  seventy-five  to  100  miles  in 
width,  these  grand  mountains,  their  tops  covered  with 
snow,  their  flanks  furrowed  with  glaciers,  form  the  pro- 
tecting wall  for  Italy  and  furnish  the  fertile  basin  of  the 
Po  with  plenty  of  moisture  from  their  white  crests. 
They  form  also  the  buttress  of  the  plateau  which  ex- 
tends north  from  the  foot  of  their  abrupt  slopes.  Tho 
Himalayas,  you  notice,  curve  toward  the  peninsula 
they  guard,  while  the  Alps  curve  from  the  peninsula  of 
Italy.  The  Danube  drains  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Alps,  Dinaric  Alps  and  Balkan  mountains  from  the 
Black  Forest  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  Alps,  like  the 
Himalayas,  have  a  plateau  to  the  north  of  them.  Just 
here  (pointing),  where  the  Danube  breaks  through  the 
mountains,  rises  a  range  called  the  Transylvanian  Alps, 
which  curve  and  extend  in  a  northwesterly  direction 
under  the  name  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  then  the 
range  takes  the  names  of  the  Sudetes  mountains,  Giant 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  2fo 

mountains,  Erz  mountains  (copper  mountains),  and 
lastly  comes  the  famous  Thuringian  Forest.  At  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Thuringian  Forest  the  mount 
ains  sink  into  hills,  but  you  can  trace  them  over  the 
Main  river,  and  where  they  form  the  upper  part  of  the 
right  slope  of  the  Ehine,  down  to  the  Black  Forest,  in 
which  the  range  rises  again  to  join  across  the  Ehone 
the  famous  Jura  with  its  deep  transverse  gorges.  On 
the  opposite  slope  of  the  Ehine  from  the  Black  Forest 
are  the  Yosges  mountains,  which  sink  into  hills  along 
the  right  slope  of  the  Ehone,  rise  again  in  Cevennes 
and  form  an  acute  angle  with  the  mountains  of  Au- 
vergne.  The  Transylvanian  Alps,  Carpathians,  Su- 
detes  mountains,  Giant  mountains,  Erz  mountains, 
Thuringian  Forest,  the  connecting  hills,  the  Black  Forest 
and  the  Jura,  the  Harz  north  of  the  Thuringian  Forest 
on  the  east,  north  and  west,  with  the  Alps,  Dinaric 
Alps  and  an  extension  of  the  Balkans  on  the  south, 
form  the  great  enclosing  wall  or  outer  rim  of  the  plateau 
of  Central  Europe.  This  plateau  extends  from  the 
water-parting  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Danube,  in  a 
northwesterly  direction,  about  700  miles  to  the  Ehine ; 
it  is  250  miles  broad.  The  eastern  end  is  called  the 
Transylvania  Table  Land.  East  of  this  table  land  the 
plateau  sinks  below  500  feet  in  the  basin  of  the  Theiss, 
a  tributary  of  the  Danube.  This  lowland  in  the  plateau 
is  nearly  250  miles  long  and  150  wide,  including  the 


234  HOW   To    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

valley  of  the  Theiss  and  a  strip  of  the  valley  of  the 
Danube.  East  of  this  lowland  is  the  plateau  of  Bohe- 
mia, a  Table  Land  shaped  like  a  kite  with  its  southern 
apex  near  the  Danube.  The  Erz  mountains,  the  Giant 
and  Sudetes  mountains  form  respectively  the  two  sides 
of  the  northern  triangle  ;  the  Bohemian  forest  and  the 
Moravian  mountains  the  longer  sides  of  the  southern 
triangle.  The  plateau  of  Bohemia  is  shut  in  by  mount- 
ains. Here  is  Austerlitz,  here  Wagram ;  not  far  off  on 
the  Iser  is  Hohenlinden ;  north  is  Dresden  and  north- 
east Jena.  With  what  terrible  battles  had  these 
mountains  to  do  ?  You  must  understand  the  structure 
of  a  country  before  you  can  understand  how  great 
armies  march  and  where  they  must  fight.  The  struc- 
ture is  the  key  to  the  whole  situation ;  for  instance,  up 
the  valley  of  Blue  Danube  came .  the  vast  hordes  of 
Asia,  which  once  conquered  and  laid  waste  all  Europe. 
The  eastern  end  of  the  plateau  of  Central  Europe  may 
be  called  generally  the  plateau  of  Bavaria.  The  Dan- 
ube basin  includes  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
plateau  of  Central  Europe.  The  Elbe  breaks  through 
the  apex  of  the  northern  triangle  of  the  "kite,-"  the  Weser 
takes  the  water  from  the  northern  slope  of  the  Thuringian 
Forest;  the  Khine  drains  the  southern  and  western 
slopes,  the  mountains  and  hills  including  the  Black 
Forest.  The  upper  course  of  this  beautiful  river  plunges 
between  the  Black  Forest  and  the  Jura,  taking  its  waters 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   DIRECTIONS.  235 

from  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Bavarian  plateau. 
The  Ehone  rises  in  a  glacier  between  the  southern  and 
higher  range  of  the  Alps  and  the  Bernese  range,  dashes 
down  a  dark  valley  between  lofty  mountains,  spreads 
out  in  Lake  Geneva,  and  then  pours  its  waters  down 
between  the  Jura  and  the  principal  range  of  the  Alps, 
where,  joining  the  main  river,  it  takes  the  waters  on  its 
right  slope  from  the  Cevennes,  broadening  and  deepen- 
ing until  it  reaches  the  Mediterranean. 

Compare  the  Alps  with  the  Himalayas ;  the  plateau 
of  Central  Europe  with  Thibet  and  Gobi. 

Long  slope  of  Eurasia.  The  continental  axis 
divides  Eurasia  into  two  great  slopes ;  the  slope  to  the 
north  we  call  the  long  slope.  It  is  much  easier  to 
analyze  this  than  the  shorter  slope  south  of  the  con- 
tinental axis,  for  there  is  one  great  plain  from  the  hills 
west  of  the  Stanavoi  mountains  to  the  base  of  the 
Pyrenees,  almost  ten  thousand  miles.  Ten  thousand 
miles  of  plain,  two-fifths  of  the  distance  around  the 
globe !  This  vast  plain  is  shaped  like  a  triangle,  its 
base  being  the  coast  line  of  the  Arctic  and  Atlantic 
oceans,  its  southern  apex  nearly  where  the  Eussians 
have  lately  pushed  a  railroad  out  into  the  desert,  Merv. 
Would  it  be  too  great  a  stretch  of  fancy  to  say  it  looks 
like  a  mighty  eagle  with  out-spread  wings ;  the  feet,  one 
on  Demavend,  the  other  on  Hindu  Kush ;  the  tip  of  its 


236  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

right  wing  at  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  tip  of  its 
left  wing  touching  the  Stanavoi  mountains ;  its  backbone 
and  neck  the  Ural  mountains,  while  its  head  is  Nova 
Zembla?  This  great  northern  plain  of  Eurasia  may 
be  divided  into  three  parts,  (1)  the  plain  of  Siberia ; 
(2)  the  great  depiession  or  the  basins  of  the  Black, 
Caspian  and  Aral  seas ;  (3)  the  plain  of  Northern 
Europe. 

The  plain  of  Siberia.  The  Ural  range  separates 
the  plain  of  Siberia  from  the  plain  of  Northern  Europe ; 
the  water-parting  of  the  Aral  and  Caspian  basin  is  the 
line  of  division  of  the  plain  on  the  southwest;  the 
Thian  Shan,  Altai  and  Yablanoi  mountains  enclose  the 
plain  on  the  south  and  the  coast  line  of  the  Frozen 
Ocean  on  the  north.  The  plain  of  Siberia  consists  prin- 
cipally of  the  basins  of  the  Obi,  the  Yenesei  and  the 
Lena,  three  vast  river  basins.  Between  these  basins 
and  east  of  the  Lena  basin  are  the  basins  of  a  large 
number  of  smaller  rivers,  which  flow  into  the  Arctic 
ocean.  The  Obi  basin  (1,360,000  square  miles,  length 
2,674  miles),  the  Yenesei  basin  (999,000  square  miles, 
length  3,688  miles),  the  Lena  basin  (775,000  square 
miles,  length  2,766  miles),  cover  a  surface  of  3,134,000 
square  miles  and  aggregate  in  length  9, 128  miles.  Thus 
the  surface  of  these  basins  is  almost  as  large  as  the 
whole  of  Europe  (3,928,252  square  miles),  while  the 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS.  237 

whole  country,  including  the  smaller  rivers  and  islands, 
is  4,826,168  square  miles,  or  897,916  square  miles 
larger  than  Europe,  and  1,223,178  square  miles  larger 
than  the  United  States.  The  population,  however,  is 
not  so  great  as  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  (4,282,891) ; 
the  population  of  Siberia  is  only  3,911,200.  Why  is 
this  ?  The  Siberian  slope  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts  corresponding  to  the  three  courses  of  a  river ;  (1) 
upper  part ;  (2)  middle  part ;  (3)  lower  part.  The 
mountains  open  their  broad  and  deep  ravines  or  trenches 
into  a  comparatively  fertile,  well- wooded  plain.  The 
upper  or  southern  part  of  the  plain  is  inhabitable,  the 
middle  part  is  a  vast,  cold  steppe,  the  lower  part  con- 
sists of  "immense  level  frozen  swamps  or  tundras.  The 
lower  courses  of  the  three  great  rivers  are  frozen  except 
from  seventy-six  to  one  hundred  days  in  the  year.  In 
summer  the  returning  sun  thaws  the  snow  and  ice 
upon  the  mountains,  and  immense  floods  swell  the 
mountain  lakes  and  streams  and  dash  and  roar  down 
through  the  trenches,  taking  with  them  vast  quantities 
of  earth,  bowlders  and  torn  up  trees ;  the  frozen  mouths 
obstruct  the  river  courses  and  the  debris,  the  spoils  of 
the  flood,  spread  out  over  large  areas  ;  the  frozen  rivers 
open  their  mouths  under  the  influence  of  the  warmer 
sun,  the  freshet  pours  out  into  the  ocean,  leaving  the 
products  of  its  devastation  to.  cover  the  land.  The 
water-partings  between  the  river  basins  are  very  low ; 


238  HOW  TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

in  fact,  one  can  travel  in  boats  from  the  basin  of  the 
Aral  sea  nearly  to  the  water-parting  of  the  Amur  by 
drawing  the  boat  over  short  portages. 

The  basins  of  the  Black,  Caspian  and  Aral  seas. 

This  vast  basin,  taken  as  a  whole,  extends  from  the 
Pamir  to  Black  Forest,  east  and  west ;  from  the  con- 
tinental axis  at  the  foot  of  the  Caspian  sea  to  the  low 
water-parting  which  divides  the  northern  plain  of 
Europe  and  this  basin.  The  continental  axis  of 
Eurasia  is  its  southern  water-parting  with  the  exception 
of  the  divide  on  the  Caucasus  mountains ;  the  northern 
boundary  runs  from  the  Black  Forest,  in  a  very  irregu- 

* 

lar  line,  over  the  water-parting  of  the  left  slope  of  the 
Danube  basin,  and  then  over  the  divide  of  the  Car- 
pathian mountains,  in  a  northeasterly  direction  over 
the  water-parting  on  the  Valdai  hills  to  the  Ural  mount- 
ains, where  the  water-parting  of  the  Irtish  takes  it  up 
and  carries  it  to  the  continental  axis  again.  Most  of 
this  vast  depression,  with  the  exception  of  the  basins  of 
Amoo  Daria  and  Sir  Daria,  slopes  generally  toward  the 
continental  axis.  This  region  has  a  marvelous  geolog- 
ical history.  It  may  have  been,  one  day,  that  this 
enormous  depression,  like  the  plain  of  Siberia,  sloped 
toward  the  northern  ocean,  borne  upon  the  shoulders  of 
high  mountains,  which  extended  from  the  Pamir  to  the 
Balkans,  and  of  which  the  Caucasus  is  left  as  a  monu- 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  239 

ment.  Who  knows  ?  The  southern  slope  of  this  depres- 
sion is  very  short,  excepting  the  slope  toward  the  Aral 
sea.  The  Alps  form  the  right  slope  of  the  Danube ; 
the  Anti- Taurus  turn  the  waters  of  their  northern  slope 
into  the  Black  sea ;  the  northern  slope  of  the  Caucasus 
gives  its  waters  to  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas ;  the 
Elburz  slopes  abruptly  to  the  Caspian  sea ;  the  Amoo 
Daria  (Oxus)  takes  its  current  from  the  Pamir  and 
Hindu  Kush;  the  Sir  Daria  from  the  Thian  Shan. 
The  northern  slope,  of  this  great  combination  of  basins, 
consists  of  a  magnificent  river  basin  system,  beginning 
in  the  west  with  the  Blue  Danube,  which  drains  the 
plateau  of  Central  Europe,  followed  by  the  basins  of 
the  Pruth,  Dniester,  Dnieper  and  Don,  with  several 
smaller  intervening  basins. 

But  the  climax  of  river  basins  is  reached  in  the 
mighty  Volga,  that  depends  less  upon  mountains  for  its 
floods  than  any  other  great  river  in  the  world  ;  joined  on 
the  east  to  the  Volga  basin  is  the  basin  of  the  Ural,  and 
then  the  depression  narrows  and  the  water  supply  comes 
from  the  southeast.  The  greater  part  of  this  basin  has 
no  outlet  into  the  ocean.  Where  do  the  waters  of  the 
Caspian  and  Aral  seas  go?  There  are  many  exceed- 
ingly interesting  facts  about  these  great  inland 
sea  basins ;  interesting  in  structure,  history  and  the 
prospects  of  future  development.  The  black  earth 
north  of  the  Black  sea,  which  rivals  the  Mississippi 


240  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

valley  in  the  production  of  wheat ;  the  broken  and  de- 
stroyed irrigating  ditches  and  canals  of  the  Amoo  Daria, 
which  make  that  river  second  only  to  the  Nile  in  its 
capabilities  of  making  land  fertile ;  the  open  way  over 
level  land  from  near  the  gates  of  India  to  the  western 
entrance  of  Central  Europe  and  up  the  Danube,  is  the 
Black  Forest,  a  route  by  which  Asia  gave  Europe  its 
conquerors,  inhabitants,  religions  and  civilization ;  all 
these  tell  of  the  direct  relation  of  structure  to  the  prog- 
ress and  development  of  mankind. 

Then  the  future;  millions  of  square  miles  of  arable 
land  are  kept  from  productive  farming,  and  the  making 
of  happy  homes,  by  the  vast  hordes  of  savage  and  half- 
civilized  nomads  (pasturing  people)  that  have  wandered 
for  ages  over  the  basins  of  the  Amoo  Daria  and  Sir 
Daria,  and  away  to  the  west  over  the  vast  steppes 
of  Siberia.  There  is  no  chance  to  cultivate  a  farm 
or  make  a  nice  home  when  any  morning  a  fierce 
band  of  Tatars  of  Kirghis  may  appear,  kill  or  drive 
you  away  and  feast  their  herds  upon  your  growing 
crops.  For  countless  ages  this  has  been  the  case  over 
far  more  than  half  of  Eurasia.  People  can  never  be- 
come civilized  unless  they  have  homes,  and  you  will 
find  that  permanent  homes  were  possible  in  earlier  ages 
only  where  the  Creator  had  walled  in  by  mountains 
and  deserts  some  fertile  portions  of  this  great  world 
like  Palestine,  Egypt,  Greece,  Italy,  Spain  and  India, 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  241 

or  had  separated  land  like  Great  Britain  from  the  con- 
tinent. Now  the  great  civilizer  of  mankind  has  come, 
the  Iron  Horse,  and  to-day  the  steam  engine  takes  Bus- 
sian  bayonets  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  sea  to 
Merv;  to-morrow,  or  within  twenty  years,  no  doubt, 
trains  of  cars  will  take  millions  of  poor  emigrants  from 
the  over-crowded  cities  of  Europe  and  China  and  scatter 
them  all  along  the  arable  tract  from  the  Caspian  sea  to 
the  Amur  basin.  The  trained  armies  of  Kussia  will 
make  the  nomad  life  unpleasant,  and  the  fierce  cowboy 
of  the  steppe  will  settle  down  to  farming.  Much  of  the 
land  which  should  supply  hungry  mouths  with  plenty 
of  food  is  kept  from  cultivation  by  the  nomad  and  the 
aristocrat — the  uncivilized  and  the  ultra  civilized. 
Which  is  the  worse? 

Northern  Plain  of  Europe.  We  now  come  to  the 
third  great  division  of  the  Eurasian  plain,  bounded  on 
the  west  and  north  by  the  coast  lines  of  the  Atlantic, 
the  English  channel,  North  sea,  Baltic  sea,  Gulf  of 
Finland,  divide  of  Finland  and  the  coast  line  of  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Its  western  boundary  is  the  divide  of 
the  Ural  mountains ;  the  southern  boundary  we  have 
already  traced,  with  the  exception  of  the  line  over  the 
depression  between  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees.  This 
plain  stretches  from  the  Ural  mountains  to  the  Pyre- 
nees, nearly  2,500  miles;  it  is  nowhere  much  more 


242  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

than  400  miles  wide;  it  is  the  narrowest  where  the 
Valdai  Hills  slope  toward  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and 
widest  at  its  eastern  termination.  It  is,  in  fact,  one 
regular  slope,  the  highest  part  of  which  is  in  the  west- 
ern portion  of  the  Alps,  where  the  Ehine  takes  its 
waters.  The  northern  slope  of  Europe  consists  of  a 
large  number  of  river  basins,  divided  by  very  low 
water-partings.  Beginning  at  the  Pyrenees  we  have 
the  Garonne  basin,  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  the  Ehone, 
the  Weser,  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  the  Vistula,  the  Nieman, 
the  Duna,  the  short  Neva,  the  Onega,  the  Dwina,  and 
Petchora  basins.  You  need  not  learn  the  names  of  these 
rivers,  but  it  is  important  to  know  their  situation  and 
structure,  as  many  of  their  basins,  like  that  of  the  Khine, 
have  played  a  very  important  part  in  history.  The 
rivers  of  northern  Eussia,  in  Europe,  creep  over  low 
plains  to  the  ocean,  while  the  upper  courses  of  the 
other  rivers  flow  swiftly  down  the  abrupt  slope.  The 
Ehine  is  the  longest  and  grandest  of  them  all.  It  takes 
its  waters  from  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps,  spreads 
out  in  Lake  Constance,  breaks  through  the  ranges  of 
the  Jura  and  Black  Forest,  turns  abruptly  to  the 
north,  flowing  through  beautiful  mountains  until  it 
reaches  the  broad  alluvial  plain.  Look  closely,  for  every 
square  mile  of  this  basin  is  crowded  with  wonderful 
events  in  history. 

The  slope  of  Northern  Europe  may  be  divided  like  the 


SUGGESTION    AND    DIRECTIONS.  243 

long  slope  of  Asia,  into  three  divisions,  upper,  middle 
and  lower.  The  upper  part  is  filled  with  forests  on  the 
flanks  and  terraces  of  the  mountains ;  the  middle  consists 
generally  of  low  fertile  hills ;  the  lower  has  the  same 
formation  as  the  tundras,  flat,  alluvial  and  swampy  land. 
The  shores  of  the  Baltic  generally  consist  of  sand  dunes 
and  swamps ;  the  flat,  alluvial  peninsula  of  Denmark 
stretches  toward  the  Scandinavian  peninsula ;  the 
swamps  of  Oldenburg,  the  mud  walls  of  flat  Holland 
and  the  marshes  and  billowy  sand  hills  of  the  Landes 
are  characteristic  of  the  lower  part  of  the  slope. 

Three  areas  on  the  long  slope  remain  to  be  men- 
tioned ;  (1)  the  great  enclosed  basin  in  the  plateau  of 
Gobi ;  (2)  the  Scandinavian  peninsula ;  (3)  Great  Brit- 
ain. Very  much  of  the  surface  of  Gobi  is  not  drained, 
at  least  by  surface  water,  into  the  ocean ;  the  great  Tarim 
river  drains  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Pamir,  flows  east 
and  sinks  into  the  Lob  Nor,  a  marshy  lake.  Compare 
with  Humboldt  river.  The  enclosed  basin  cannot  now 
be  bounded,  as  very  little  is  known  of  how  much  surface 
the  rivers  on  all  sides,  that  flow  to  the  oceans,  drain. 

Scandinavia  is  separated  from  the  northern  slope 
of  Europe  by  the  low  granite  floor  of  Finland.  A  well 
defined  axis  (nearly  1,000  miles  long)  divides  the  pen- 
insula into  a  long  and  a  short  slope ;  the  long  slope  is 
drained  by  many  short  rapid  streams ;  the  short  slope 
presents  a  rocky  barrier  to  the  fury  of  the  waves  of  the 


244  HOW   T0   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

north  Atlantic,  which,  with  glaciers,  have  cut  for  miles 
inland  long,  deep,  narrow  ravines  or  gorges  called  fiords. 
Brittany  is  formed  of  low  mountains,  jutting  out  into  the 
Atlantic  between  the  basins  of  the  Loire  and  Seine. 
Great  Britain,  with  Ireland,  seems  like  a  broken  con- 
tinuation of  the  Scandinavian  range,  while  the  English 
channel  makes  another  break  in  the  continuity  by 
separating  Great  Britain  from  Brittany.  The  narrow 
straits  of  Dover  have  done  more  to  make  England  a 
mighty  nation  than  all  the  monarchs  from  King  Alfred 
to  Queen  Victoria.  Great  Britain,  like  Scandinavia, 
has  one  axis  running  north  and  south  through  Scotland 
and  England,  dividing  it  into  a  long  and  short  slope, 
while  mountainous  Wales  seems  to  be  a  repetition  of 
Brittany.  Ireland  has  a  special  structure,  differing 
from  the  structure  of  most  large  islands.  It  has 
a  rim  or  fringe  of  highlands,  while  the  inside  of  the 
coast  rim  is  filled  for  the  greater  part  with  lowlands. 
Compare  the  plain  of  Eurasia  with  the  plain  of  North 
America ;  with  the  plain  of  South  America.  The 
rivers  of  Siberia  with  the  Mackenzie.  The  Danube 
basin  with  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  Yolga 
basin  with  the  La  Plata  basin.  The  plain  of  Siberia 
with  the  northern  plain  of  Europe.  The  northern  plain 
of  Europe  with  the  Atlantic  slope  of  North  America. 
The  lower  part  of  the  plain  of  northern  Europe  with 
the  tide  water  region  on  the  Atlantic  slope  of  North 


SUGGESTIONS   AND    DIRECTIONS.  245 

America.  Let  pupils  see  resemblances  and  differences 
between  any  two  natural  features  previously  studied, 
e.  g.,  Ehine  and  Hudson  basins. 

Analysis  of  short  slope  of  Eurasia.  This  slope, 
although  comparatively  short,  is  rich  with  peninsulas, 
mountains  and  river  basins,  and  still  more  rich  in 
history.  We  will  begin  by  molding  this  slope  at  the 
northeastern  corner  of  Eurasia.  Here  we  find  a  long, 
lance -shaped  peninsula,  Kamchatka;  it  extends  to  the 
south  800  miles,  then  the  mountain  range  which  makes 
the  peninsula,  partially  submerged  by  the  Pacific,  seems 
to  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
continent. 

First,  we  see  the  long  curve  of  the  Kurile  islands, 
with  a  multitude  of  mountain  tops  rising  out  of  the 
ocean;  second,  the  Empire  of  Japan,  Yesso,  Niphon, 
Kiusiu  and  Sikokf,  great  mountainous  islands;  third, 
the  Loo  Choo  islands  curving  like  the  Kuriles ;  fourth, 
Formosa,  followed  by  a  great  archipelago  called  the 
Philippine  Islands ;  fifth,  the  great  island  of  Borneo ; 
then  there  rises  what  seems  like  an  immense  submerged 
continent. 

Now  we  will  go  back  to  Kamchatka  again.  Here 
is  the  sea  of  Okotsk,  shut  in  by  Kamchatka  and  the 
Kurile  islands,  with  the  inner  walls  of  the  Stanovoi  or 
Yabolonoi  mountains,  over  which  the  continental  axis 


246  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

runs.     Here  is  the  Sagalien  island,  long,  narrow  and 
full  of  mines. 

Just  here  at  the  head  of  the  strait,  which  separates 
Sagalien  from  the  main  land,  the  coast  line  makes  a 
long  curve  outward,  walled  by  a  coast  range  which  bends 
inward  opposite  Niphon,  and  then  follows  the  coast  for 
300  miles  or  more,  curves  toward  the  east,  and  running 
out  into  the  ocean  forms  the  peninsula  of  Corea,  which 
is  350  miles  long;  it  looks  like  Florida,  but  it  is  much 
larger.  The  Japan  islands  shut  in  the  Japan  sea, 
which  is  shaped  something  like  a  long  pear,  its  stem 
formed  by  the  Gulf  of  Tartary.  The  coast  range  here 
slopes  toward  the  great  basin  of  the  Amur ;  the  river  is 
turned  to. the  north  by  this  range.  The  country  on  this 
slope  is  called  Manchuria  and  it  consists  mostly  of  the 
basin  of  the  Amur.  Between  the  Corea  and  the  mouth 
of  the  Yang-tse  Kiang  is  a  very  long  and  deep  inden- 
tation called  the  Yellow  sea,  shut  in  by  Kiusiu,  one  of 
the  Japan  islands,  and  the  Loo  Choos.  The  Shantung 
mountains  send  a  peninsula  into  the  Yellow  sea  and  aid 
in  walling  in  one  of  the  most  wonderful  alluvial  plains 
in  the  world.  This  plain  is  a  delta ;  it  was  made  by 
the  silt  brought  down  from  the  Hoang  Ho  and  the 
Yang-tse  Kang  rivers ;  the  former,  however,  has  had 
the  most  to  do  with  it.  These  are  two  remarkable 
rivers;  their  united  basins  cover  an  area  of  1,085.200 
square  miles.  The  Hoang  Ho  rises  (they  say)  in  the 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  247 

eastern  part  of  the  Kuen  Lun  mountains  and  flows  for 
2,200  miles  in  the  mountains.  The  delta  is  crossed 
and  recrossed  by  a  system  of  canals. 

One   hundred  miles  south  of    the   mouth  of    the 

• 

Yang-tse  Kiang  begins  another  curve,  very  much  like 
the  curve  which  forms  the  inner  boundary  of  the  Japan 
sea;  it  curves  to  the  south  for  nearly  1,000  miles  and 
ends  in  a  short  peninsula,  which,  with  the  island  of 
Hainan,  very  much  resembles  the  peninsula  of  Corea. 
This  curve,  like  the  one  on  the  Japan  sea,  is  formed  by 
a  coast  range  which  sends  many  rivers  to  the  sea  from 
its  outer  slope ;  the  inner  slope  gives  its  waters  to  the 
Yang-tse  Kiang  The  island  of  Hainan  and  the  short 
peninsula  partially  enclose  the  Gulf  of  Tonquin,  which 
is  an  arm  of  the  China  sea,  shut  off  from  the  Pacific 
by  the  Philippine  Islands. 

We  now  come  to  the  first  of  six  wonderful  pen- 
insulas, all  trending  toward  the  south,  all  mountainous, 
and  all  but  one  have  been  the  nest-places  of  civiliza- 
tion. This  peninsula  is  formed  of  mountain  ranges 
running  north  and  south,  with  valleys  between  them, 
through  which  flow  the  Cambodia  or  Mekeong,  the 
Menam,  the  Salwen  and  the  Irawaddy  rivers,  all  taking 
their  waters  from  the  southeastern  base  of  the  great 
plateau.  One  of  the  ranges,  which  make  this  peninsula, 
extends  more  than  900  miles  farther  south  than  the 
others,  and  forms  the  Malay  peninsula,  which,  like 


248  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Kamchatka,  is  shaped  like  a  lance,  or  perhaps  you  will 
think  it  looks  like  a  great  club ;  the  people  there  are 
savage  enough  for  both.  Just  over  Malacca  strait  is 
the  long  island  of  Sumatra,  which,  like  Ceylon  and 
Sicily,  seems  to  have  dropped  off  from  the  end  of  the 
peninsula.  Now  we  cross  the  broad  bay  of  Bengal, 
which  indents  the  continent  as  India  projects  into  the 
Indian  ocean;  the  peninsula  and  the  bay  seem  like 
counterparts  of  each  other.  Here  is  the  second  of  the 
great  peninsulas,  formed  by  the  plateau  of  Deccan, 
walled  in  on  the  west  by  the  steep  Ghauts  (gateways), 
high  mountains,  the  upper  part  of  a  slope  which  in- 
clines over  a  plateau  eastward  to  the  coast  line ;  along 
the  coast  a  low  line  of  coast  mountains  keeps  back  the 
waves  of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  The  Vindhya  range  par- 
tially walls  the  Deccan  on  the  north.  Just  south  of 
this  range  the  land  inclines  eastward,  and  carries  the 
Nerbudda  600  miles,  and  the  Taptee  400  miles  to  the 
Arabian  sea.  The  Deccan  is  shaped,  you  see,  like  a 
triangle.  Enclosed  by  the  Himalayas  on  the  north,  the 
Solyman  and  Hala  mountains  on  the  west,  and  the 
western  wall  of  Indo-China  on  the  east,  is  a  vast  allu- 
vial plain.  From  east  to  west  across  the  plain  it  is 
1,900  miles ;  from  the  northwest  corner  of  the  plain  to 
the  base  of  the  Vindhya  mountains  it  is  800  miles.  If 
the  Indian  ocean  should  rise  600  feet  it  would  flood  the 
entire  plain  to  the  base  of  the  Himalayas,  leaving  the 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  249 

Deccan  an  island.  This  plain  consists  almost  entirely 
of  the  basins  of  three  wonderful  rivers,  the  Brahma- 
putra, the  Ganges  and  the  Indus ;  indeed,  it  is  believed 
that  these  three  rivers  made  the  plain  by  bringing  down 
silt  from  the  mountains.  The  Ganges  and  Brahma- 
putra unite  their  deltas  and  form  probably  the  largest 
delta  in  the  world ;  it  extends  200  miles  inland  and  has 
a  coast  line  of  more  than  eighty  miles.  These  two 
rivers  bring  down  immense  quantities  of  ground-up 
rock  from  the  lofty  mountains,  sending  a  stream  of 
colored  water  sixty  miles  into  the  bay  of  Bengal,  al- 
though most  of  the  sediment  is  deposited  close  to  the 
shore,  building  the  delta  every  year  farther  and  farther 
out  into  this  arm  of  the  Indian  ocean.  Look  just 
north  of  the  Himalayas  and  you  will  see  where  the 
Brahmaputra  and  the  Indus  get  the  immense  quantities 
of  earth  which  builds  their  deltas,  spreads  out  upon  the 
broad  plain  and  is  gradually  filling  up  the  bay.  The 
Sanpob  drains  the  eastern  part  of  the  two  steep  and 
lofty  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  and  the  Kara  Korum  ranges 
and  then  breaks  through  the  highest  mountain  range  in 
the  world.  Kuen  Lun  has  a  greater  average  height. 
The  Indus,  with  its  tributary,  drains  the  western 
slopes  of  the  same  mountains.  You  can  think  of 
these  snow- clad  mountains.  (Himalaya  means  snow- 
clad.)  You  can  think  of  countless  rivers  of  ice 
(glaciers)  furrowing  the  precipitous  slopes.  Every  year 


250  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

when  the  sun  moves  toward  the  north  and  shines  upon 
the  vast  fields  of  white  snow  and  upon  the  rivers  of 
ice  the  snow  melts ;  the  ice  leaves  huge  piles  of  rocks, 
gravel  and  sand  at  the  ends  of  the  glaciers  (terminal 
moraines),  which  the  melted  ice  takes  up  and  hurls 
down  to  the  river  floods  below.  The  swift  current 
grinds  up  the  pebbles  in  its  rocky  bed  and  carries  the 
fine  silt  down  until  the  slowly  flowing  river  on  the 
plain  below  drops  its  burden,  which  now  builds  new 
land  or  deepens  and  enriches  the  soil.  The  soil  is  not 
always  richer,  however,  for  in  many  places  there  is 
altogether  too  much  sediment  for  healthful  vegetation. 
Look  at  the  right  slope  of  the  Indus  basin ;  the  river 
with  its  branches  brings  down  an  immense  amount  of 
earth,  and  added  to  this,  the  Solyman  and  Haly  mount- 
ains pay  no  small  tribute  of  ground-up  rock  to  the 
valley  below;  the  result  is,  this  part  of  the  plain  is 
nearly  if  not  quite  a  desert — dark  jungles  for  wild 
beasts — and  broad  expanses  of  barren  sand,  not  only 
upon  the  right  but  also  upon  the  left  slope.  There  is 
one  thing  very  wonderful  about  this  plain ;  a  traveler 
can  go  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  in  a  northeast- 
erly direction  to  the  Punjab,  and  then  down  the  Indus 
to  its  mouth  without  seeing  a  pebble  as  large  as  the 
end  of  your  finger.  The  stone  mills  in  the  mountains 
must  do  their  work  well. 

The  upper  part  of  the  Indus  basin  is  called  the 


NOTOS — SIXTH   GRADE.  251 

Punjab  or  Five  Waters,  because  several  tributaries  flow 
in  the  same  general  direction  and  form  between  them 
a  peninsula-shaped  region.  The  lower  part  of  the 
Indus  basin  is  called  the  Sinde.  The  Godavery, 
Kistnah,  Pennair  and  Cauvery  rivers  rise  in  the  west- 
ern Ghauts,  cross  the  Deccan  and  flow  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal. 

India,  from  the  base  of  the  Himalayas  to  Cape 
Cormorin  is,  in  its  horizontal  form,  an  equilateral 
triangle,  1,900  miles  on  each  side.  Walled  in  by  mount- 
ains, it  may  be  called  one  of  the  regions  especially 
adapted  by  its  structure  for  a  nest-place  of  civilization. 
This  area  is  1,490,000  square  miles,  larger  than  the 
combined  areas  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  Denmark,  Norway  and 
Sweden;  252,000,000  people  live  in  India. 

The  long  plateau.  From  the  right  water-parting 
of  the  Indus  to  the  waters  of  the  Archipelago' or  J^geaii 
sea  and  the  Dardanelles  stretches  toward  the  northeast, 
one  unbroken  plateau.  It  is  enclosed  on  the  north  by 
the  Black,  Caspian  and  Aral  depression ;  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  the  Persian  gulf,  Gulf  of  Oman  and  Ara- 
.bian  sea ;  on  the  west  it  sinks  into  the  ^Egean  sea  to 
rise  again  in  many  beautiful  islands,  which  connect 
this  plateau  with  another  plateau  in  Europe,  that 
reaches  to  the  Alps.  This  plateau  is  2,500  miles  long 


252  HOW  TO    STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

and  nearly  800  miles  broad  from  the  valley  of  the 
Amoo  Daria  to  the  Arabian  Sea.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
rim  of  mountains.  At  one  place  it  is  connected  with 
the  Caucasus  mountains  by  a  narrow  isthmus  of  high- 
lands ;  at  another  a  range  of  mountains  runs  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast  and  connects  with  the  plateau  and 
peninsula  of  Arabia.  Although  one  land  mass,  it  may 
be  divided  into  the  plateau  of  Iran,  the  Armenian  High- 
lands and  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor  or  Anatolia.  Iran 
is  divided  into  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan  and  Persia. 
With  the  exception  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Armenian 
highlands  the  greater  part  of  this  plateau  is  a  desert. 
On  the  slopes  of  the  enclosing  rim  there  are  many  very 
fertile  spots,  as  the  high  mountains  in  the  plateau  catch ' 
rain  enough  from  the  nearly  dry  atmosphere  to  make 
some  beautiful  oases.  The  Helmund  river,  like  the  Tarim 
and  Humboldt  rivers,  sinks  into  a  vast  marsh.  Asia 
Minor  is  a  great  tangle  of  mountains  in  which  there 
seems  to  be  no  order.  The  eastern  slope  bears  several 
fine  rivers  to  the  ^Egean  sea.  Here  is  the  ancient  Mean- 
der, a  winding  river  from  which  we  get  the  word  meander- 
ing. You  will  learn  much  about  this  slope  when  you 
study  the  very  interesting  history  of  Greece.  Here  is 
ancient  Troy ;  here  Ephesus ;  over  this  strait  (Helles- 
pont, bridge  to  Greece,)  Leander  tried  to  swim ;  and  here 
is  the  Golden  Gate  (Bosphorus,  ox-ford,)  that  Eussia 
ccvets  so  much.  Why? 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  253 

The  whole  plateau  itself  constitutes  the  greater 
part  of  the  world  that  Alexander  the  Great  conquered. 
Between  the  rim  of  the  plateau  and  the  Syrian  desert 
(a  part  of  Arabia)  is  the  famous  valley  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  or  valley  of  Mesopotamia.  Here  Paradise 
was  located  (it  is  said) ;  here  was  Babylon,  Chaldea  and 
here  are  the  ruins  of  several  ancient  cities. 

Asia  Minor,  I  have  said,  is  connected  with  Arabia 
by  a  range  of  low  mountains  running  along  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  In  all  the  past  of  this 
world,  probably,  no  mountains  ever  were  so  full  of 
wonderful  history  as  this  range.  Not  far  from  the 
place  where  this  coast  range  starts  from  Asia  Minor  is 
Tarsus ;  then  follows  the  land  of  the  ancient  Phoeni- 
cians, the  first  commercial  nation  known  in  history. 
Here  are  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  on  which  grew  the 
famous  cedars ;  but  here  is  a  land  more  wonderful  in 
its  history  than  all  the  lands  in  the  world.  Do  you 
see  this  little  river  sixty  miles  long?  This  sea  so  small 
that  I  can  scarcely  mold  it  on  this  map,  this  sea  supplies 
the  meandering  river  with  water  and  this  sea  receives 
the  river ;  sea  of  Galilee,  the  river  Jordan  and  the  Dead 
Sea !  The  Jordan  valley  is  a  deep  ditch  or  moat,  to 
defend  from  invaders  a  little  mountainous  land,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  Mediterranean ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Desert  of  Sin,  which  the  wandering  Israelites  crossed ; 
on  the  north  there  is  a  little  plain,  the  one  weak  spot 


254  H°W  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

in  this  mighty  natural  fortress.  In  ancient  times  there 
were  wandering  tribes  and  nomads  whose  trade  was  war. 
Let  a  people  settle  down  to  farm  life  and  these  savage 
foes  to  progress  would  drive  out  the  farmers  and  de- 
stroy their  homes.  Just  over  the  desert  of  Syria,  in  the 
valley  of  Mesopotamia,  lived  in  those  days  the  great 
nation  of  Assyrians.  The  Israelites,  after  they  crossed 
the  dreary  desert  and  fought  their  way  up  the  deep,  dark 
ravine  or  mountain  gorge  which  led  to  Jerusalem  (for 
this  land  is  Palestine),  could  have  held  their  conquered 
lands  but  a  short  time  were  Palestine  not  a  great  natural 
fortress,  surrounded  by  a  deep  moat,  a  sea  and  a  desert. 
This  little  patch  of  land,  so  small  on  the  map,  held  a 
people  who  had  more  to  do  with  the  civilization  of  man- 
kind than  all  the  rest  of  Asia  together.  I  tell  you  this 
to  show  how  much  the  structure  of  a  country  has  to  do 
with  its  civilization.  The  coast  range  which  bears 
Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Nazareth  and  Hebron  leaves  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  extends  southward, 
forming  the  small  triangular  peninsula  of  Sinai,  en- 
closed on  the  west  by  the  Suez  canal  and  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  which 
lies  in  the  same  depression  as  the  Dead  sea  and  the 
river  Jordan.  The  Mediterranean  coast  range,  which 
includes  ancient  Phoenicia,  Palestine  and  Sinai,  is  the 
northwestern  rim  of  the  peninsula  and  plateau  of  Ara- 
bia. This  peninsula  is  of  a  quadrangular  shape,  widen- 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADK.  255 

ing  in  the  southern  part.  It  is  1,800  miles  long  with 
an  average  width  of  600  miles.  Taking  the  river 
Euphrates  as  one  of  its  enclosing  bodies  of  water,  the 
isthmus  connecting  it  with  Asia  Minor  between  the 
Gulf  of  Scanderoon  and  the  upper  waters  of '  the 
Euphrates,  is  less  than  100  miles  wide. 

Arabia  is  enclosed  by  the  Suez  canal,  Bed  sea,  Gulf 
of  Aden,  Arabian  sea,  Persian  gulf  and  the  Euphrates. 
It  is  described  as  a  rainless,  treeless  plateau  of  sand  and 
rocks ;  still  it  is  said  that  two-thirds  of  the  land  is  arable. 
The  southern  escarpment  or  slope  of  the  rim  toward 
the  Indian  ocean  is  quite  fertile.  Here  (pointing  on 
molded  map)  is  Mecca  and  here  Mocha.  Every  one 
knows  what  they  are  noted  for.  The  central  portion  of 
Arabia  is  called  the  Nejd  (highlands).  The  mountains 
here  catch  the  rain  and  there  are  many  fertile  oases. 
Look  on  the  map ;  not  one  river  is  given  for  all  this 
vast  expanse.  Arabia  has  very  much  in  common,  in 
shape  and  general  description  with  the  plateau  sep- 
arated from  it  by  the  valley  of  Mesopotamia  and  the 
Persian  gulf,  the  plateau  of  Iran.  Notwithstanding 
Arabia  is  so  dry  and  sandy  it  has  a  wonderful  history 
in  the  world's  civilization.  The  science  of  mathematics 
had  its  birth  in  this  land;  our  figures  in  arithmetic 
are  called,  you  know,  the  Arabic  system  of  notation. 

Peninsula  of  Greece.  The  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus  mountains  sink  into  the  ^Egean  sea  or  Archi- 


256  HOW   TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

pelago  and  mark  their  track  to  Greece  by  many  beauti- 
ful islands ;  islands  whose  names  are  preserved  in 
myths  and  history.  The  sailors  of  ancient  Greece, 
at  the  time  ocean  navigation  was  in  its  infancy,  when  on 
their  way  from  Europe  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  were 
never  out  of  sight  of  some  lovely  island  or  islet  in  the 
^Egean  sea.  After  the  Phoenicians  had  made  commerce 
a  great  power,  Palestine  fell,  for  that  country  had  no 
good  harbors,  and  its  people  no  commercial  spirit. 
Civilization  moved  westward  along  the  northern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Of  all  the  peninsulas  of  the 
world  the  peninsula  of  Greece  has  the  most  remark- 
able history :  It  is  walled  in  on  the  north  by  the  Bal- 
kans and  the  Dinaric  Alps,  as  the  Himalayas  wall 
in  India  and  the  Alps,  Italy;  protecting  them  alike 
from  the  cold  north  winds  and  the  invasions  of  savage 
foes  and  giving  from  their  cold  tops  an  abundance  of 
moisture. 

The  Balkans  and  Dinaric  Alps  cannot  be  called  a 
range  of  mountains ;  they  form  a  great  maze  of  mount- 
ains similar  to  Asia  Minor.  The  northern  slope  of  this 
mass  of  mountains  is  drained  by  the  Danube.  These 
mountains,  under  the  general  name  of  Balkans  and 
Dinaric  Alps,  fill  up  and  form  the  broad  northern  or 
Balkan  portion  of  the  peninsula.  They  reach  from  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic  to  the  Black  sea,  bounded  on  the 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  257 

north,  almost  its  entire  extent,  by  the  Danube  river; 
on  the  west  roll  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic ;  on  the  east  are 
the  Black  and  ^Egean  seas.  The  Dinaric  Alps  send  a 
long  spur  southward  down  into  the  Mediterranean,  which, 
with  numerous  spurs,  forms  the  peninsula  of  Greece 
proper. 

This  lower  peninsula  is  cut  nearly  in  two  by  a  deep 
fiord-like  indentation  called  the  Corinthian  gulf.  The 
part  thus  cut  off  is  called  the  peninsula  of  Morea ;  once 
it  was  called  Peloponnesus.  The  range  sent  southward 
from  the  Dinaric  Alps  has  several  short  spurs ;  between 
these  spurs  are  pleasant,  fertile  valleys.  In  Morea 
there  is  a  plateau  called  Arcadia.  In  mythology  you 
will  read  much  about  this  well-wooded  table  land.  To 
the  student  of  Greek  history  every  mountain,  hill,  val- 
ley and  harbor  in  this  sea-girt  land  recalls  some  mar- 
velous story.  Here  is  Mount  Olympus  (pointing),  from 
whose  top  the  god  Jupiter,  or  Zeus,  sent  down  the 
lightning ;  here  are  the  Parnassus,  Helicon  and  Cith- 
seron  mountains ;  along  this  shore  is  a  long,  narrow 
island  (Negropont),  the  ancient  Euboea,  separated  from 
the  main  land  by  a  narrow  sound.  Between  this  sound 
and  the  mainland  is  the  famous  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
a  few  miles  south  of  this  pass  is  the  battle  ground  of 
Marathon.  Here  is  the  city  of  Athens,  the  ancient 
seat  of  learning.  It  is  named  for  the  Goddess  Athene 
or  Minerva.  The  forest  plateau  of  Arcadia  sends  out 


258  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

four  spurs  to  the  southeast ;  between  the  two  longest 
spurs  is  the  river  Eurotas,  on  the  right  bank  of  which 
was  the  unwalled  city  of  Sparta — unwalled  because  it 
was  defended  by  its  brave  sons. 

This  land  of  Greece  may  be  called  the  most  won- 
derful and  the  most  interesting  country  in  all  the  round 
world.  Away  back  in  ancient  times,  before  the  days 
of  written  history,  tales  of  gods  and  goddesses,  nymphs 
and  satyrs  were  told.  Jupiter  thundered  from  the 
mountain  heights,  Neptune  plowed  the  sea,  Vulcan  had 
his  forges  on  one  of  the  beautiful  islets  in  the  ^Egean 
sea ;  here  Apollo  shot  his  fatal  arrows  and  Hercules, 
the  hero,  performed  his  wonderful  feats  of  strength. 
Here  the  blind  poet,  Homer,  sang  his  interesting  stories 
of  the  taking  of  Troy  and  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses. 
Then  came  the  true  history,  more  wonderful  than  the 
myths.  Plato,  Socrates,  Pericles  and  Phidias,  all 
names  renowned  in  history,  were  inhabitants  of  this 
land  of  song,  poetry,  music  and  art.  The  political  in- 
stitutions under  which  you  live  had  their  birth  here. 

The  Peninsula  of  Italy.  Fierce  wars  drove  colon- 
ists from  Greece  to  Italy.  ^Eneas  with  his  father, 
Anchises,  came  from  burning  Troy.  This  peninsula 
has  a  history  hardly  less  wonderful  than  that  of 
Greece.  You  may  have  read  something  of  the  history 
of  the  KomaE  Empire  that  once  conquered  Greece, 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  259 

Palestine  and  Egypt.  The  arched  Alps  form  a  mighty 
wall  on  the  north;  a  wall  that  guarded  the  Koman 
Empire  against  its  foes  for  centuries.  Over  the  snowy 
tops  of  these  mountains  came  the  army  of  Hannibal 
with  its  elephants ;  over  the  same  heights  centuries 
later  came  Napoleon  with  an  army  that  knew  not  de- 
feat. Caesar  crossed  the  same  mountains  as  he  came 
from  Kome  to  conquer  Helvetia  (Switzerland)  and  Gaul 
(France).  From  the  southwestern  end  of  the  mount- 
ain arch  a  long  compact  range  of  mountains  runs  south- 
east down  into  the  Mediterranean  for  600  miles. 

At  the  southern  end  the  Appenines  separate  and 
form  two  spurs  between  which  is  the  Gulf  of  Taranto. 
The  eastern  spur  forms  the  heel  of  a  well-defined  boot, 
while  the  western  branch  is  the  instep  and  toe.  The 
toe  is  directed  toward  the  island  of  Sicily.  On  the 
Adriatic  is  a  spur  to  the  boot,  so  that  Italy  may  be 
called  the  boot-shaped  peninsula.  A  distinct  axis  run- 
ning the  entire  length  of  Italy  marks  the  division  of  the 
peninsula  into  two  short  slopes ;  the  united  length  of 
both  is  nowhere  more  than  100  miles.  The  Adriatic 
or  the  eastern  slope  is  the  shorter.  Short  streams 
drain  the  two  slopes ;  on  the  west  the  Tiber  and  Arno 
are  the  largest  and  most  important.  On  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber  stands  Kome ;  on  the  Arno,  Florence.  The 
lower  part  of  the  western  slope  above  and  for  a  short 
distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber  is  very  marshy. 


260  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Here  is  Vesuvius,  a  great  volcano  looking  down  upon 
the  beautiful  city  and  bay  of  Naples. 

Between  the  axis  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Ap- 
penines  and  the  axis  of  the  Alps'  is  the  basin  of  the 
Po.  The  valley  of  the  Po  is  a  level  plain  of  alluvial 
soil.  Once,  it  is  said,  the  waters  of  the  Adriatic  filled 
this  entire  valley.  The  Alps  and  Appenines  contributed 
the  soil  to  fill  up  the  sea.  Like  the  Ganges,  the  Po  is 
now  constantly  building  land  out  into  the  Adriatic. 
Venice,  the  city  on  the  sea,  is  built  upon  the  marshy 
coast  of  this  plain.  I  wish  that  I  could  take  you  all 
on  a  trip  from  Switzerland  over  the  snow-crowned  Alps, 
down  into  sunny  Italy.  In  Switzerland  the  climate  is 
cold,  the  soil  rough,  rocky  and  not  very  fertile ;  vines 
cling  to  mountain  sides  and  grass  grows  on  steep  de- 
clivities. One  day's  ride  over  the  Simplon  by  Napo- 
leon's road  and  you  drop  down  into  a  land  laughing  in 
the  sunshine,  sparkling  waters,  luxuriant  vines,  bright 
flowers  and  lakes  so  beautiful  that  they  seem  more  like 
dreams  than  reality.  The  valley  of  the  Po  has  many 
groves  of  mulberry  trees,  whose  leaves  feed  the 
silk  worms.  The  mild-eyed,  long-horned  Eoman  oxen 
are  used  to  plow  the  rich  soil  brought  down  the  steep 
and  rugged  slopes  of  the  Alps  and  Appenines.  Some 
day,  I  hope  soon,  you  will  learn  what  a  great  part  this 
boot-shaped  peninsula  has  had  in  the  history  of  the 
world. 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE:  261 

Leaving  the  shores  of  Italy  you  must  glance  at 
Genoa,  the  birthplace  of  the  discoverer  of  America. 
Here,  on  a  little  island  called  Elba,  south  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Arno,  the  great  conqueror  of  Europe,  Napoleon, 
was  confined.  Just  east  from  Elba  is  his  birthplace, 
the  island  of  Corsica-;  south  of  Corsica  and  separated 
from  it  by  a  narrow  strait  the  larger  island  of  Sardinia ; 
the  two  islands  seem  to  form  one  mountain  range. 
Between  the  western  coast  of  Italy  and  the  last  pen- 
insula of  the  famous  six  is  a  wide  stretch  of  waters 
curving  up  to  the  base  of  the  Alps  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Ehone. 

Peninsula   of  Spain   or   the  Iberian  Peninsula 

As  the  Himalayas  guard  India,  the  Balkan  and  Dinaric 
Alps,  Greece,  and  the  Alps,  Italy,  so  do  the  Pyrenees 
lift  their  lofty  walls  across  the  broad  isthmus  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  stretching 
away  to  the  Atlantic  in  the  Cantabrian  range.  The 
peninsula  of  Spain  is  enclosed  by  the  Pyrenees,  Medi- 
terranean, Atlantic  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Its  shape 
is  an  irregular  square,  each  side  500  miles  in  length, 
the  whole  square  containing  228,000  square  miles. 
From  the  middle  of  the  southern  side  there  is  a  pro- 
jection -of  land  which  nearly  meets  a  corresponding 
projection  from  Africa.  Between  the  two  projections 
are  the  straits  of  Gibraltar — the  Pillars  of  Hercules — 


262  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

as  the  stone  walls  of  the  straits  were  called  by  the  an- 
cients ;  this  to  them  was  the  end  of  the  world.  The 
famous  Eock  of  Gibraltar  forms  the  point  or  promon- 
tory of  the  projection  from  Spain.  This  peninsula  is 
filled  with  mountain  ranges  extending  east  and  west, 
with  narrow  valleys  between  them.  There  is  a  short 
slope  to  the  Mediterranean  and  a  long  slope  to  the  At- 
lantic, with  one  notable  exception.  The  Ebro  basin, 
the  largest  in  Spain,  slopes  to  the  Mediterranean. 
The  long  slope  is  principally  composed  of  the  Douro, 
Tagus,  Guadiana  and  Guadalquivir.  There  is  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  between  the  drainage  of  the  Deccan 
or  peninsula  of  India  and  the  drainage  of  Spain.  The 
Ebro  corresponds  to  the  Nerbudda,  and  the  other  rivers 
of  Spain  flowing  westward  correspond  to  the  rivers  of 
the  Deccan  flowing  eastward.  Spain  is  a  plateau  like 
the  Deccan ;  a  large  part  of  it  is  dry  table  land.  The 
basin  of  the  Guadalquivir  (Andalusia)  is  very  fertile  and 
very  beautiful. 

The  history  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  is  not  so 
important  as  that  of  Greece  or  Italy,  still  it  has  played 
no  small  part  in  the  world's  history.  The  Moors 
crossed  from  Africa  and  held  this  country,  especially 
the  southern  part  of  it,  in  subjection  for  many  years. 


NOTE.  —It  is  proposed  to  make  a  course  of  history  embracing  the  ancient 
history  and  some  of  the  modern  history  of  these  great  nest-places  of  civil- 
ization. This  course  is  to  run  parallel  with  the  course  in  geography. 


NOTES — SIXTH   GRADE.  263 

Washington  Irving  has  told  us  much  about  Spain  and 
the  Moors. 

Review  the  Malay  peninsula,  India,  plateau  of 
Iran,  Armenian  Highlands  and  Asia  Minor,  valley  of 
Mesopotamia,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Greece,  Italy  and 
Spain.  Compare.  Find  resemblances.  Which  two 
countries  are  the  most  alike  ?  In  which  two  countries 
are  there  the  greatest  differences  ?  Which  was  the  best 
adapted  to  ancient  civilization  ?  Why  ?  Which  is  the 
best  adapted  to  modern  civilization?  Why? 

Review  the  general  description  of  Eurasia,  slopes, 
highlands,  plains,  river  basins  and  peninsulas. 

Draw  and  describe  Asia  by  itself  and  then  draw 
and  describe  Europe.  Compare  the  two  grand  divis- 
ions. At  this  stage  of  the  work  it  may  be  well  to  put 
off  the  study  of  climate,  soil,  vegetation,  animals, 
races  of  men  and  political  divisions  until  the  structure 
of  Africa  and  Australia  has  been  learned.  If,  how- 
ever, the  teacher  wishes  to  teach  these  subjects  here, 
the  same  general  plan  can  be  followed  as  that  given  in 
the  notes  on  North  and  South  America. 


NOTE.— To  make  assurance  doubly  sure,  it  is  explained  that  this  some- 
what extended  description  of  the  general  features  of  Eurasia  is  given  to  aid 
the  teacher  in  forming  the  concept  corresponding  to  this,  the  largest  con- 
tinent in  the  minds  of  his  pupils.  The  bits  of  history  are  presented  to 
arouse  an  interest  in  the  study  of  structure.  Never  tell  pupils  that  which 
they  can  tell  you,  and  demand  that  they  tell  you  all  that  you  tell  them. 
Molding,  drawing,  reading,  writiny  should  be  constantly  used  to  aid  in 
the  concept  building. 


264      HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 
STRUCTURE  OF  AFRICA. 

The  structure  of  the  continent  of  Africa  differs  very 
much  from  the  structure  of  all  the  other  continents,  with 
the  one  exception,  Australia.  It  may  be  called  a  great 
unorganized  mass  of  land.  It  is  not  divided  into  slopes  nor 
great  river  basins.  It  is  a  vast  plateau,  5,000  miles  long 
and  4,600  miles  broad,  containing  nearly  12,000,000 
square  miles,  surrounded  by  16,000  miles  of  coast  line. 
It  is  very  slightly  broken  by  projections  and  indentations. 

The  continent  as  a  mass  of  land  may  be  divided  into 
Northern  Africa  and  Southern  Africa.  The  northern 
part  is  the  great  mass  extending  east  and  west,  a  distance 
of  4,600  miles,  the  southern  part  extends  from  the  north- 
ern part  southward,  ending  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  great  plateau  continent  is  walled  in  by  a  rim  of 
mountain  ranges. 

Beginning  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  just 
west  of  the  Suez  Canal,  we  find  a  low  range  of  mountains 
sloping  toward  the  Red  Sea.  This  range  expands  and  in- 
creases in  height  in  the  plateau  of  Abyssinia,  the  highest 
land  in  Africa.  The  same  mountain  mass  (Plateau  of 
Abyssinia)  extends  southward  under  other  names,  and 
culminates  in  the  high  peaks  of  Kenia  and  Kilimanjaro. 

From  this  mountain  mass  a  lower  plateau  extends 
out  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  just  south  of  Arabia,  in  a  tri- 
angular-shaped peninsula.  South  from  Kenia  and  Kili- 
manjaro the  mountain  ranges  run  along  the  coast  to  the 
Cipe  of  Good  Hope.  These  ranges  have  many  names,  but 


NOTES — SIXTH  GRADE.  265 

they  may  be  looked  upon  as  one  great  range  or  mountain 
mass,  sloping  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  enclosing  a  series  of 
plateaus.  The  slope  is  generally  very  short.  The  Abyssinian 
plateau  drops  abruptly  7,000  feet  to  the  coast  line  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  inner  or  western  slope  sends  its  waters  for  3,000 
miles  to  the  Nile.  One  part  of  the  mountain  mass  holds 
the  great  lakes,  Victoria  N'yanza,  Albert  N'yanza,  and 
Tanganyika,  the  reservoirs  of  the  most  wonderful  river  in 
the  world.  South  of  the  Nile  basin,  a  plateau  formed  of 
Njesa  mountains,  holds  Lake  Nyassa,  which  sends  its 
waters  southward  to  the  Zambesi,  that  breaks  through 
the  mountains  on  its  way  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
Limpopo  basin  joins  the  Zambesi  basin  en  the  north. 

In  and  south  of  the  Limpopo  basin  is  a  very  inter- 
esting region  in  modern  history.  The  lower  part  of  the 
short  slope  is  a  comparatively  level  plain,  the  home  of  the 
Zulus.  The  Continental  axis,  or  line  of  highest  points, 
runs  over  this  continuous  mountain  mass  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  there  is  no  long 
slope  reaching  westward  to  the  Atlantic,  as  in  the  other 
continents.  Most  of  the  land  in  Eastern  Africa  is  drained 
into  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Indian  Ocean  by  the  Nile, 
the  Zambesi,  and  the  Limpopo. 

On  the  western  coast  a  range  or  ranges  of  mountains 
may  be  traced  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  northward  to 
the  Mediterranean.  The  mountains,  are  lower  than  those 
011  the  eastern  coast.  At  the  Bight  of  Benin  the  mountains 
turn  directly  to  the  west  and  here  rise  to  their  greatest 
heights.  Here  is  the  Gold  Coast,  the  southern  slope  of 


266  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  Kong  Mountains.  From  this  coast  millions  of  poor, 
ignorant  and  helpless  men  and  women  have  been  carried 
off  into  slavery  to  toil  for  more  highly  civilized  beings. 
Along  the  western  edge  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara  there  are 
no  high  mountains,  at  least  there  are  none  upon  the 
maps. 

Through  the  mountains  from  the  C;  pe  of  Good  Hope 
to  the  western  extremity  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  the 
Orange,  the  now  famous  Congo,  the  Ogewai,  and  the  Niger 
rivers  cut  their  way  to  the  Atlantic.  The  mountains  of 
Barbary  slope  to  the  Mediterranean,  extending  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  Here  we  find  an  inset  or 
indentation  600  miles  long  between  the  mountains 
of  Barbary  and  the  plateau  of  Barca.  A  low  line  of 
mountains  extends  along  the  coast  nearly  to  the  Nile. 

Thus  we  see  Africa  is  a  great  plateau  walled  in  by 
mountains.  The  slopes  and  river  basin  that  can  be  de- 
scribed with  some  degree  of  clearness  are: 

1.  The  Nile  Basin. 

2.  The  Barbary  Slope 

3.  The  Gold  Coast. 

4.  The  short  eastern  slope  of  Southern  Africa. 

The  portions  of  Africa  which  can  be  described,  in  a 
very  indefinite  way  only,  are : 

1.  Desert  of  Sahara. 

2.  The  Soudan  region. 

3.  The  Great  African  Plateau. 

4.  The  Kalahari  Desert. 

It  may  be  well  to  mold  and  describe  the  larger  and 
partially  explored  regions  first. 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  267 

The  Desert  of  Sahara.— This,  the  largest  desert  in 
the  world,  is  bounded  on  the  west,  north  and  east  by  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Iin3,  the  axis  of  the  Barbary  Mountains, 
the  coast  line  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  line  which 
bounds  the  narrow  strip  of  alluvial  soil  on  the  Nile;  the 
southern  boundary,  to  present  knowledge,  is  very  indefinite ; 
it  is  marked  approximately,  by  an  irregular  line  extending 
eastward  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  across  the  con- 
tinent to  the  Nile  basin. 

Any  attempt  at  more  than  a  very  general  description 
of  the  great  desert  would  be  useless.  It  would  be  a  very 
great  mistake  to  imagine  it  a  plain,  for  it  is  filled  with 
mountains,  mountains  of  rock  and  mountains  of  sand.  It 
would  be  a  still  further  mistake  to  call  Sahara  a  barren 
waste,  as  there  are  many  fertile  oases,  together  with  many 
mountain  ranges,  which  lift  their  crests  high  enough  to 
catch  the  moisture  and  to  make  the  valleys  below  quite 
fertile.  The  Plateau  of  Air  and  Asben,  nearly  in  the 
center  of  the  Desert,  is  said  to  be  excellent  land  for  culti- 
vation. 

Sahara  is  a  riverless  region.  In  the  northeastern 
portion  is  the  Wady  Draa,  over  whose  bed  water  runs 
from  the  southern  slope  of  the  Barbary  Mountains  for  a 
part  of  the  year.  South  of  these  mountains  are  the  great 
sand  dunes,  or  shifting  piles  of  sand,  heaped  up  like  huge 
snow  drifts  by  the  wind.  Probably  the  most  desolate 
portion  of  the  Desert  is  in  the  eastern  part  south  of  the 
oases  of  Anjilah  and  Siwah.  This  is  called  the  Libyan 
Desert;  great  mounds  of  drifting,  shifting  sand,  high  as 


268  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

high  hills,  are  piled  or  scattered  at  the  mercy  of  the 
winds;  an  ocean  of  sand  billows  that  drift  past  the  pyra- 
mids, over  the  wheat-fields  of  Egypt. 

There  are  three  depressions  in  Sahara  which  are 
lower  than  the  ocean  level.  One  is  northwest  from  the 
great  hend  of  the  Niger,  150  miles  from  Timbuctoo;  it  is 
said  to  be  filled  with  rock  salt.  Another  depression  is  the 
oasis  of  Twat,  which  is  the  valley  of  a  wady  basin 
sloping  from  the  Barbary  Mountains.  The  largest  de- 
pression lies  south  of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Gulf  of  Sidra.  This  depression  is  500 
miles  in  length  and  breadth,  and  from  150  to  200  feet  be- 
kw  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  A  canal  seventy-five 
miles  long  from  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  would  change  this  de- 
pression into  a  great  inland  sea.  Many  parts  of  the 
Desert  are  now  irrigated  by  artesian  wells.  (Tell  stories 
of  caravans,  wandering  tribes  of  Arabs,  and  the  "Ships  of 
the  desert,"  camels. ), 

Soudan  and  the  great  African  Plateau. — Rising 
from  the  southern  edge  of  the  Desert  is  a  higher 
plateau,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  Great  African 
Plateau.  This  land  is  watered  by  the  aid  of  heights  and 
favorable  moist  winds.  Trees  are  found  on  the  edges  of 
the  higher  plateau,  but  the  land  is  generally  marked  upon 
the  maps  as  a  steppe  or  prairie  region.  The  northern 
slope  of  the  Kong  mountains  is  well  wooded  and  very 
fertile. 

South  of  the  area  of  grassy  plains  is  a  great  tropical 
forest  land,  a  vast  expanse  extending  almost  across  the 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  269 

continent.  It  embraces  the  entire  basin  of  the  Congo, 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  Nile  basin.  Here  Livingstone, 
Stanley  and  Baker  made  their  important  explorations,  the 
most  important  result  of  all  these  being  the  discovery  of 
the  source  of  the  Nile. 

South  of  the  forest  region  is  a  vast  steppe,  part  of 
which  is  very  fertile  ;  and  south  of  the  steppe  is  the  Kala- 
hara  Desert,  like  the  Sahara,  a  great  sandy  plain.  Still 
further  south  we  find  the  basin  of  the  Orange  River,  the 
Karoo  Desert,  and  the  mountains  on  the  coast.  Nothing 
like  an  accurate  map  has  ever  been  made  of  this  vast  re- 
gion which  stretches  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  4,500  miles.  It  is  well  to  accept 
certain  well-known  facts.  The  time  which  children 
sometimes  spend  in  learning  the  imaginary  boundaries 
of  so-called  political  divisions,  might  as  profitably  be 
spent  in  bounding  the  mountains  in  the  moon. 

The  Nile  Basin. — In  all  the  earth's  structure  there 
is  nothing  more  wonderful  than  this  wonderful  river 
basin.  I  have  told  you  about  the  right  slope  of  this  basin 
and  3,000  miles  of  the  continental  axis  which  forms  its 
water  parting.  The  left  slope,  if  we  may  trust  the  maps, 
gives  the  Nile  very  little  water;  there  are  only  three  small 
tributaries  on  this  slope,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Djur, 
which  enters  the  Nile  just  opposite  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Abyssinian  Plateau. 

In  the  great  mountain  mass  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  central  forest  region,  are  three  great  lakes,  Victoria 


2/0  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

N'yanza,  Albert  N'yanza,  and  the  Tanganyika,  the  im- 
mense reservoirs  of  the  Nile.  From  this  same  mountain 
mass  flow  two  tributaries  into  the  Nile,  one  of  which  is 
the  Sobat ;  these  two  rivers,  together  with  lakes,  furnish 
the  main  current  of  the  Nile,  which  flows  the  year  round. 
But  the  torrents  that  make  the  floods,  and  carry  the  rich 
stores  of  ground-up  rock,  come  from  the  lofty  Abyssinian 
mountains  down  through  the  deep  gorges  and  ravines, 
which  are  furrowed  in  the  abrupt  slopes  of  the  plateau. 
Two  great  tributaries,  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara  or 
Black  Riter,  in  the  rainy  season,  pour  immense  quantities 
of  water  into  the  main  river. 

From  the  mouth  of  Atbara  clear  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, for  1,200  miles,  the  Nile  has  not  a  single  tributary, 
nor  does  its  basin  receive  a  drop  of  rain;  indeed  it 
has  no  basin  for  this  long  distance.  It  dashes  over  five 
cataracts,  and  plows  its  way  through  land,  which  without 
it  would  be  a  part  of  that  desert  of  deserts,  the  barren  and 
desolate  Libyan  sand  ocean.  The  hot  sun  of  the  tropics 
robs  it  of  its  floods,  the  thirsty  hot  sand  drinks  it — but  on 
it  goes,  bearing  its  precious  burden  of  rich  soil  down  to 
the  valley  below,  where  it  changes  a  desert  into  the  most 
fruitful  land  in  the  world.  Had  this  wonderful  river 
turned  into  the  Red  Sea  or  been  lost  in  the  desert,  instead 
of  pyramids,  temples,  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  and  a  mar- 
velous history,  the  record  of  Egypt  would  have  been  that 
of  the  Libyan  Desert — and  nothing  more.  Protected  by 
deserts,  supported  by  a  green  strip  of  rich  earth,  the  gift 
of  the  Nile,  the  grandest  empire  of  ancient  times  rose, 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  271 

flourished  through   many  centuries — and  to  day,  though 
dead,  yet  speaketh  in  the  wonders  of  antiquity. 

We  have  India,  Palestine,  Greece,  Italy  and  Spain, 
the  nest  places  of  human  civilization,  but  this  little 
Egypt,  dependent  upon  the  waters  of  one  river  for  its 
growth  and  development,  seems  to  be  the  most  wonderful 
of  them  all.  (Describe  the  pyramids  and  temples  of 
Egypt.) 

The  Barfoary  Slope. — From  the  Atlantic  to  the  long 
indentation  of  the  Mediterranean,  a  distance  of  more  than 
1,300  miles,  there  is  a  mass  of  mountains  and  plateaus, 
which  slope  toward  the  latter  ( the  Mediterranean )  on  the 
north,  and  the  Desert  of  Sahara  on  the  south.  The 
principal  range  is  the  Atlas,  named  after  the  god  who, 
according  to  the  ancients,  bore  the  world  upon  his  shoul- 
ders. 

The  northern  slope  has  three  distinct  divisions;  the 
lower  part  next  to  the  sea  is  called  the  Tell,  and  consists 
of  cultivable  land;  the  middle  part  is  steppe  land,  good 
for  grazing;  and  the  upper  or  mountainous  part  is  dry 
and  partially  barren,  containing  many  brackish  lakes  or 
sebkhas.  The  southern  slope  sinks  into  the  countless 
sand  dunes  of  the  Desert.  It  rains  on  the  northern  slope 
nearly  five  months  in  the  year  (October  to  February), 
while  on  tho  southern  slope  it  rains  only  one  month.  The 
date  palm  grows  here  close  to  the  borders  of  the  Sahara. 
On  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  southwest  from 
Sicily,  was  once  the  ancient  city  of  Carthage. 


272  HOW   TO    STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Gold  Coast.— South  of  the  Barbary  mountain 
mass,  sloping  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  is  another  similar 
mountain  mass,  of  nearly  the  same  length  and  breadth. 
The  principal  range  is  the  Kong  Mountains.  Along  the 
coast,  like  the  Tell,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  level  and  very 
fertile  land,  which  broadens  at  the  delta  of  the  Niger. 
North  of  the  level  plain  is  a  rich  and  very  densely 
wooded  country,  mountainous  and  inhabited  by  fierce 
tribes  of  black  men.  Here  dwell  the  Ashantees  and 
the  cruel  savages  of  Dahomey.  For  centuries  civilized 
nations  have  tried  to  soften  the  savage  hearts  of  these 
fierce  barbarians  by  stealing  the  inhabitants  for  slaves. 

The  Short  Eastern  Slope.— From  the  mouth  of  the 
Zambesi  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  a  short  abrupt  slope, 
embracing  on  its  lower  edge  a  narrow  plain.  This  plain  is 
very  fertile,  and  the  steeper  slopes  above  furnish  excellent 
pasturage.  The  Dutch  colonized  this  slope  many  years 
ago,  and  you  will  notice  that  most  of  the  names  of  moun- 
tains are  Dutch.  The  English,  who  claim  the  right  to 
conquer  all  the  weaker  portions  of  the  earth,  tried  to  mas- 
ter this  slope.  They  .conquered  the  Zulus,  but  the  sturdy 
Dutchmen  held  their  ground. 

There  is  hardly  a  mile  of  definite  boundaries  of  politi- 
cal divisions  accurately  known  outside  of  the  Barbary 
States,  with  the  exception,  it  may  be,  of  Sierra  Leone  and 
Liberia.  After  the  structure  of  all  the  continents  has 
been  learned,  it  may  be  well  to  study  the  climate,  soil, 
vegetation,  animals  and  races  of  men. 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  273 

AUSTRALASIA. 

We  have  now,  for  our  last  description,  a  wonderful 
world  of  islands;  a  vast  submerged  continent;  or  it  may 
be  a  continent  rising  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  You  re- 
member the  long  mountain  range,  partially  under  the 
ocean,  that  extends  from  Kamchatka — all  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia,  Kurile,  Japan,  Loo  Choo,  and 
Formosa  islands,  ending  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The 
coast  of  Asia  turns  to  the  west  opposite  these  islands — 
but  the  islands  themselves  continue,  stretching  away  for 
thousands  of  miles  to  the  south  and  east,  girt  by  the  green 
waters  of  the  peaceful  ocean.  The  eastern  extremity  of 
this  greatest  of  all  archipelagos,  is  the  long  narrow  island 
of  Sumatra,  which,  with  Java,  and  other  smaller  islands, 
extends  to  the  east.  From  the  northeastern  end  of  Suma- 
tra this  island  world  stretches  away  to  the  east  for  nearly 
9,000  miles.  From  the  Sandwich  or  Hawaiian  Islands 
southwest  to  the  little  Emerald  Island,  may  be  reckoned 
the  breadth  of  Australasia,  as  this  great  mass  of  islands  is 
now  called. 

Australasia  covers  a  surface  much  larger  than  all  of 
Eurasia.  The  western  part  of  Australasia  contains  by  far 
the  largest  islands.  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  (three  and  a 
half  times  larger  than  Great  Britain);  Celebes,  which 
looks  like  some  gigantic  insect;  the  Molucas  or  Spice 
Islands,  and  New  Guinea,  are  the  principal  ones,  if  we  ex- 
cept Australia,  the  largest  of  them  all.  It  is  an  open  ques- 
tion whether  to  regard  Australia  as  a  continent  or  an  island. 


274  H°w   To   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

It  is  not  worth  your  time  to  learn  the  names  of  all 
the  groups  of  islands  in  this  mighty  Archipelago,  you  can 
learn  the  names  of  the  constellations  easier,  but  when  you 
read  of  travels  or  explorations  here  you  can  find  on  the  map 
the  places  visited.  Here  are  Fiji  Islands,  Cook  Islands, 
named  after  the  famous  explorer,  Society  Islands,  and 
Samoa  Islands;  you  have  read  perhaps  that  Germany  is 
laying  claim  to  the  latter  group.  New  Zealand,  the 
largest  island  in  the  southern  part  of  Australasia,  is  made 
up  of  several  islands  separated  by  narrow  straits;  it  is  as 
large  as  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  is  in  shape  very  much  like 
Italy;  the  toe  of  the  boot,  however,  points  toward  the 
northwest.  The  Sandwich  Islands  are  best  known  to  us, 
as  they  are  nearest  our  continent.  Some  day  you  may 
read  of  the  wonderful  things  in  these  islands,  of  the  coral 
formation,  of  the  atolls,  the  volcanoes,  the  animals,  the 
vegetation,  and  the  human  beings  that  live  here. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia  is  the  largest  island  and  the  smallest  conti- 
nent in  the  world;  its  area  is  2,983,200  square  miles.  It 
has  8,000  miles  of  coast  line,  is  2.500  miles  in  length  from 
east  to  west,  and  1,950  miles  in  breadth  from  north  to 
south  (mold  as  you  describe).  Australia  differs  very  much 
from  all  other  continents.  It  is  thought  by  geologists  to 
be  a  mass  of  islands  which  have  been  joined  by  lowlands 
that  have  risen  out  of  the  ocean  during  a  late  geological 
period.  Where  once,  it  is  said,  was  a  great  number  of 
islands  like  other  portions  of  Australasia,  is  now  one  solid 


NOTES  —  SIXTH   GRADE.  275 

body  of  land.  If  the  level  of  the  ocean  were  raised  500 
feet  the  lowlands  would  be  flooded,  and  the  continent  would 
return  to  its  supposed  former  state,  an  archipelago. 

Australia  may  be  described  generally  as  a  vast  expanse 
of  lowlands,  enclosed  by  a  rim  of  hills  and  mountains, 
with  highlands  here  and  there  rising  from  the  lower 
levels.  The  conventional  shape  of  this  continent  is  an 
oblong.  The  coast  line  is  very  regular,  having  only  two 
great  indentations,  the  deep  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  the 
opposite  bay,  the  Australian  Bight:  Spencer  Gulf,  Encoun- 
ter Bay,  and  Cambridge  Gulf  (pointing)  are  smaller  inden- 
tations. The  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  lies  between  two  large 
land  projections,  the  long,  narrow,  pointed  peninsula  of 
York,  and  the  broad  land  mass  of  Arnheim.  Off  the 
eastern  coast  of  Australia,  from  York  Cape,,  the  extremity 
of  York  Peninsula,  there  extends  southward  for  1,200 
miles,  a  remarkable  coral  formation,  called  the  Great  Bar- 
rier Reef.  It  has  only  one  safe  entrance  for  ships.  This 
reef  is  from  20  to  150  miles  from  the  main  land;  the 
waves  of  the  Pacific  break  against  it,  forming  a  long  line 
of  white  foam. 

The  eastern  side  of  Australia,  next  the  ocean,  is  a 
mountain  mass  extending  the  entire  length  of  the  coast, 
from  Torrens  Strait  to  Bass  Strait,  1,700  miles,  from 
which  point  the  mountain  ranges  turn  to  the  west.  This 
mountain  mass  is  composed  of  several  parallel  ranges 
which  are  drained  on  the  ocean  side  by  short  rivers,  the 
longest  being  not  more  than  200  miles.  These  rivers  cut 


276  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

their  way  to  the  ocean  through  deep  gorges  seaming  the 
flanks  of  the  mountain  slopes. 

Australia  contains  only  one  great  river  basin,  the  basin 
of  the  Murray,  with  its  tributary  basins  of  the  Darling, 
Lachlan,  and  Murrumbidgee.  The  left  slope  of  the  Dar- 
ling and  Murray  is  the  long  inward  slope  of  the  eastern 
mountain  mass.  This  basin  seems  to  be  the  only  exten- 
sive organization  for  life  in  the  lowland  continent.  The 
upper  part  of  the  basin  is  fertile;  grassy  cultivable  lands 
abound,  but  the  lower  part  is  a  dreary  waste.  The  long 
river  flows  through  a  desert,  and  sinks  into  an  immense 
marsh  before  it  reaches  the  ocean.  West  of  the  Murray 
basin  is  a  vast  lake  region.  Lakes  Gardner,  Torrens  and 
Eyre  are  great  bodies  of  brackish  water  surrounded  by 
desolate,  rocky,  barren  plains.  The  northern,  western  and 
southern  edges  of  the  continent  contain  few  elevations 
that  may  be  called  mountains.  Many  rivers  flow  down 
the  short  low  slopes.  In  the  northwest  there  is  some  fer- 
tile land;  with  this  exception  it  is  believed  by  explorers 
that  the  western  half  of  Australia  is  little  less  than  a  bar- 
ren wilderness. 

As  late  as  1860  the  government  of  Australia  offered 
$50,000  to  any  one  who  would  travel  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  continent  from  north  to  south,  west  of  the  Murray 
basin.  In  1862  a  man  by  the  name  of  Stuart  succeeded  in 
doing  this  after  a  terrible  struggle  through  the  almost 
impenetrable  wilderness.  Thousands  of  square  miles 
are  covered  by  dense  jungles  or  bushes;  the  principal 
shrub  is  a  kind  of  Enca^'^'is,  which  grows  eight  or 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  277 

ten  feet  high,  and  covers  the  ground  in  matted  tangled 
masses.  This  shrub,  which  sends  its  roots  down  into 
the  soil  for  long  distances  in  search  of  moisture,  will 
grow  and  nourish  where  another  plant  would  perish.  The 
Alfalfa,  (a  sort  of  clover)  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  sandy 
regions  of  our  own  continent  for  the  same  reason. 
Around  Lake  Eyre  grows  a  hard,  coarse,  spiry  grass  in 
clumps  or  tussocks,  "covering  the  arid  plains  for  hundreds 
of  miles."  This  grass  is  so  hard  and  sharp  that  it  wounds 
the  feet  of  horses.  (See  Stanford's  Compendium,  Aus- 
tralasia, page  21.) 

The  plants  and  animals  and  aboriginal  races  of  men 
differ  very  much  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  The 
leaves  of  the  trees  hang  down  and  furnish  little  or  no 
shade ;  some  trees  are  practically  leafless ;  one  animal  has 
a  duck's  bill  and  four  legs;  and  finally,  the  Bushmen  are 
the  lowest  order  of  savages  known.  Once  England  sent 
many  of  its  criminals  here,  (to  Botany  Bay)  but  after 
the  discovery  of  gold  (1851)  the  inhabitable  portions  of 
the  continent  were  very  rapidly  colonized.  A  large 
island  (Tasmania)  lies  south  of  Bass  Strait,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the.  continent.  (Read  Cook's  Voyages.) 

The  Earth  as  a  Sphere. — If  the  work  laid  down  in 
this  course  of  study  has  been  thoroughly  done,  pupils  are 
now  prepared  to  form  a  mental  picture  of  the  whole  earth 
as  one  spherical  body.  A  globe  may  be  profitably  used  from 
the  beginning  of  the  work,  but  if  the  well-known  laws  of 
synthesis  are  true,  the  mind  cannot  be  prepared  for  any- 
thing like  a  clear  concept  of  the  whole  earth  until  the 


278  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

parts  of  which  the  whole  consists  are  mental  products. 
These  products  are  the  concepts  of  continents,  which  are 
to  be  arranged  and  related  in  the  mind  in  correspondence 
to  the  reality. 

For  the  first  step  a  good  device  is  to  mold  in  putty 
the  different  continents  and  islands  upon  a  small  paper 
glohe  (costing  20  cts.).  While  molding  the  continents  in 
this  way  there  should  be  a  thorough  review  of  all  previous 
work.  The  relation  of  the  continents  to  the  oceans  should 
be  carefully  studied,  and  the  whole  picture  fixed  in  the 
mind. 

Questions. — What  land  slopes  to  the  Pacific  Ocean? 
To  the  Indian  Ocean ?  To  the  Mediterranean  Sea?  To  what 
oceans  do  the  short  continental  slopes  incline?  Nearest 
to  what  oceans  do  you  find  the  continental  axes?  To 
what  oceans  do  the  long  slopes  incline  ?  What  land  slopes 
toward  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  The  Arctic  Ocean?  What 
points  in  the  Continental  axes  are  farthest  from  the  oceans  ? 
What  points  are  nearest  the  oceans  ?  Into  what  oceans  do 
the  peninsulas  project?  What  highlands  protect  the  conti- 
tinents  from  being  worn  away  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean  ? 
What  coast  lines  have  no  such  protection?  Why?  What 
peninsulas  have  a  mountainous  structure?  What  penin- 
sulas are  lowlands  ?  What  islands  seem  to  have  been  parts 
of  continents?  From  what  highlands  were  they  broken 
off?  What  islands  partially  enclose  seas?  What  seas, 
bays  and  gulfs  lie  between  peninsulas  ?  What  peninsulas 
extend  in  a  southerly  direction?  What  peninsulas  extend 


NOTES  — SIXTH  GRADE.  279 

in  a  northerly  direction?     What  in  a  westerly  direction? 
Easterly? 

Relation  of  Drainage  to  the  Oceans. — What  ocean 
receives  the  most  water  from  the  land?  What  the  least? 
Into  what  oceans  do  the  longest  rivers  flow?  The  short- 
est ?  Name  the  longest  and  shortest  rivers  received  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Arctic  Ocean. 
The  Indian  Ocean.  What  areas  of  continents  are  not 
drained  into  the  ocean?  What  rivers  flow  directly  into 
the  ocean?  What  rivers  flow  into  seas,  gulfs  and  bays? 
What  is  the  largest  river  in  the  world,  whose  waters  are 
not  received  by  the  ocean?  The  next  largest? 

Areas,  Breadth  and  Length  of  Oceans. — What 
ocean  has  the  largest  area?  The  next  largest  area?  At 
what  points  are  the  continents  joined  ?  At  what  points  do 
they  approach  each  other  the  nearest  ?  What  distance  on 
the  ocean  must  you  travel  in  going  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope?  What  ocean  is  the  widest,  (East  and 
West)?  What  ocean  has  the  most  indentations — seas, 
bays  and  gulfs?  What  ocean  the  fewest?  What  inden- 
tation extends  the  farthest  into  the  land?  Name  all  the 
indentations  of  the  Pacific  in  order,  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Malay  Peninsula.  Of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Name  the 
indentations  of  the  Atlantic  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Of  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  Bering  Strait 
eastward  to  Bering  again.  What  indentations  extend  in 
a  northerly  direction  into  the  land  ?  In  a  southerly  direc- 


280  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY,, 

tion  ?  In  an  easterly  direction  ?  Westerly  ?  What  ocean 
lias  the  longest  coast  line  ?  The  shortest  ?  What  ocean 
has  the  most  regular  coast  line?  The  most  irregular? 
What  ocean  has  the  most  islands  ?  The  largest  islands  ? 
Put  this  table  on  the  blackboard. 

AREAS  OF  CONTINENTS   COMPAEED   WITH   LENGTHS   OF   COAST 

LINES.* 

AREA.  LENGTH  OF  COAST  LINE. 

Asia 16,216,600  sq.  miles 19,800  m. 

Africa 11,314,300  "       "     16,200  " 

North  America . .  8,261,900  "       " 27,700  " 

South  America . . .  6,887,500  "       "     15,500  " 

Europe 3,565,200  "      "     19,800  " 

Australia 2,948,300  "       " 8,760  " 

Problems. — What  is  the  combined  area  of  all  the  con- 
tinents? What  is  the  combined  length  of  coast  line  of 
all  the  continents?  What  is  the  area  of  Eurasia?  What  is 
the  length  of  coast  line  of  Eurasia?  Which  continent  has 
the  longest  coast  line  ?  Which  the  shortest  ?  What  is  the 
difference  in  length  between  the  longest  and  the  shortest  ? 
What  is  the  proportion  of  square  miles  to  a  mile  of  coast 
line  in  each  continent?  Which  continent  has  the  great- 
est area  to  a  mile  of  coast  line  ?  Which  the  smallest  ?  How 
many  square  miles  of  land  are  there  to  a  mile  of  coast  line 
in  the  world?  There  are  196,900,143,000  square  miles  of 
surface  on  the  globe:  what  is  the  difference  between  the 
land  surface,  and  the  ocean  surface  ?  What  is  the  propor- 
tion in  squaremiles  of  ocean  surface  to  continental  surface  ? 


*  Taken  from  Guyot's  Physical  Geography,  page  23.    It  will  be  seen  that  esti- 
mates of  areas  differ  according  to  authorities. 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  28l 

General  Review  and  Comparison  of  Continents.*— 

Name,  in  order,  all  the  mountain  systems  over  which  the 
continental  axes  pass  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape  Finisterre. 
Name  the  mountain  ranges  over  which  the  continental 
axes  pass  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape  Finisterre.  Name  the 
mountain  ranges  over  which  the  continental  axis  of  Africa 
passes  from  near  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  By  what  mountain  mass  is  the  continental  axis 
of  Africa  connected  with  the  continental  axis  of  Asia? 
Name  five  of  the  highest  elevations  over  which  the 
continental  axes  pass.  Five  of  the  lowest  elevations. 
Describe  the  primary  highland  masses  of  each  continent. 
Where  in  each  continent  are  the  primary  highlands  the 
widest?  Where  the  narrowest?  Where  is  the  widest 
highland  mass  in  all  the  continents?  Where  do 
the  primary  highlands  consist  of  a  single  range  ?  What 
primary  highlands  are  enclosed  hy  two  ranges  ?  Name  the 
ranges  that  enclose  each  primary  system?  Name  the 
principal  mountain  ranges  in  the  primary  highlands  that 
run  in  nearly  parallel  directions  with  the  continental  axes. 
Which  of  these  ranges  are  the  highest  ?f  Name  the 
plateaus,  which  form  parts  of  the  primary  mountain  sys- 
tems. Give  them  in  order  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape  Finis- 
terre; from  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


*  Anything  like  the  mere  memorizing  of  names  would  defeat  the  whole  plan. 
These  questions  are  to  assist  in  the  clearness  and  growth  of  the  mental  picture. 
Uave  pupils  answer  without  maps  if  possible.  If  there  are  indications  of  word 
memorizing,  change  the  questions  so  as  to  demand  the  presence  of  the  pictures  in 
consciousness. 

tThe  heights  of  a  few  of  the  most  lofty  peaks  in  each  primary  mountain  sys- 
tem might  be  put  upon  the  blackboard  for  reference  and  comparison. 


282  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

By  what  mountain  ranges  is  each  plateau  enclosed? 
Which  plateau  has  the  greatest  area?  The  second  great- 
est? Which  of  these  plateaus  are  in  the  long  slopes? 
Which  in  the  short  slopes?  What  are  the  principal  river 
basins  in  these  plateaus?  What  river  basins  are  entirely 
included  in  them?  What  great  rivers  rise  in  them?  By 
what  mountain  ranges  is  the  great  plateau  continent 
(Africa)  enclosed.  What  primary  mountain  sytems  have 
no  large  plateaus?  In  what  direction  do  the  different 
mountain  systems  extend?  What  systems  extend  North 
and  South?  East  and  West?  What  relation  has  the 
direction  in  which  the  primary  mountain  systems  extend, 
to  the  general  direction  in  which  the  continents  extend? 

Review  of  Long  Slopes. — Bound  the  long  slope  of 
South  America,  of  North  America,  of  Eurasia,  of  Asia,  of 
Europe.  Name  all  the  parts  of  primary  highlands  that  are 
wholly  within  these  slopes.  Give  them  in  order  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Cape  Finisterre.  Name  mountain  ranges  and 
pleateaus  on  the  long  slopes,  in  the  same  order.  Name 
the  secondary  land  masse^  on  these  slopes  or  elevated  land 
masses,  in  which  the  mountain  masses  are  separated  from 
mountains  of  the  primary  land  masses  by  broad  plains. 
What  long  slope  has  no  secondary  land  mass?  What 
long  slopes  have  two  secondary  land  masses?  Name 
the  upper  parts  or  mountain  ranges  in  these  secondary 
land  masses.  Name  in  order  as  above,  the  projections, 
of  the  long  slopes. 

Drainage  of  Long  Slopes. — Name  all  the    river 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  283 

basins  011  the  long  slopes,  (except  those  which  are  wholly 
contained  in  the  secondary  land  masses,)  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Cape  Finisterre.  Name  all  the  rivers  which  flow 
the  entire  length  of  one  of  the  long  slopes.  Which  of 
these  rivers  do  not  have  their  sources  on  the  lines  of  the 
continental  axes?  Name  all  the  rivers  whose  general 
course  is  at  right  angles  with  the  continental  axes. 
Name  all  the  rivers  whose  courses  are  in  the  same  general 
direction  as  the  continental  axes.  What  very  long  river 
does  not  drain  one  of  these  long  and  broad  slopes? 
Where  are  parts  of  these  long  slopes  very  short  ? 

Plains  on  the  Long  Slope. — Name  the  plains  on 
the  long  slopes  from  Cape  Finisterre  to  Cape  Horn.  How 
many  plains  are  there  on  the  long  slopes  ?  Which  of  these 
plains  is  the  largest?  Describe  the  plain  of  South 
America,  of  North  America,  of  Eurasia.  Parts  of  what 
river  basins  form  these  plains  ?  How  high  must  the  ocean 
rise  in  order  to  flood  these  plains?  How  would  the 
continents  look  if  the  ocean  should  rise  1,000  feet? 
What  rivers  in  the  long  slopes  flow  toward  the  continent- 
al axes?  What  river  basins  on  these  slopes  are  not 
drained  into  the  ocean  ?  Enclosed  basins.  Locate  Steppes, 
Selvas,  prairies,  llanos,  pampas,  tundra,  Valdai  Hills,  Ural 
Mountains,  Guiana  Highlands,  Brazilian  Highlands ;  basin 
of  the  Black,  Caspian  and  Ural  Seas.  Bound  the 
Danube  river  basin. 

Compare  Amazon,  Mississippi,  Lena  and  Volga  river 
basins. 


284  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Review  of  Short  Slopes. — Name  the  mountains 
that  form  the  upper  parts  of  the  short  slopes  from  Cape 
Horn  to  Cape  Finisterre.  Name  all  the  plateaus  in  the 
primary  highlands  of  these  slopes.  Do  the  greatest 
mountain  masses  helong  to  a  long  slope  or  a  short  slope  ? 
In  what  continents  are  these  slopes  the  shortest  ?  The  long- 
est? Name  all  the  peninsulas  on,  this  slope.  Of  what 
mountain  ranges  and  plateaus  does  each  peninsula  con- 
sist? What  peninsula  is  on  both  slopes,  long  and 
short?  What  peninsulas  contain  plateaus?  What 
peninsulas  are  made  up  of  several  mountain  ranges? 
What  peninsula  consists  principally  of  one  range?  What 
peninsulas  are  enclosed,  on  one  side,  by  very  high  moun- 
tain ranges? 

Drainage  of  Short  Slopes. — Name  all  the  river 
basins  on  the  short  slopes  from  Cape  Horn  to  Cape 
Finisterre.  On  what  short  slope  are  the  longest  rivers? 
The  shortest?  What  river  basins  contain  plains  formed 
by  alluvial  deposits? 

Parts  of  what  river  basins  are  in  the  primary  high- 
lands? What  rivers  on  these  slopes  do  not  rise  in  the 
primary  highlands?  Which  way  does  the  land  slope  in 
the  peninsula  of  Spain  ?  In  the  Deccan  ?  What  penin- 
sula is  comparatively  riverless  ? 

What  slope  does  the  short  eastern  slope  of  Africa  re- 
semble? What  other  river  basin  does  the  basin  of  the 
Nile  resemble? 

Review  of  all  the  Continents. — Locate  the  Rocky 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  285 

Mountains,  Andes,  Himalayas,  Kuen  Lun,  Alps,  Pyrenees, 
Cantabrian. 

Locate  Brazilian  Mountains,  Appalachian,  Guiana, 
Scandinavian,  Ural,  Kong,  Atlas,  Blue  Mountains-. 

Locate  plateaus  of  Thibet,  Gobi,  Great  Basin  of  N.  A. 
Iran,  plateau  of  Central  Europe,  Kalahari. 

Name  all  the  principal  rivers  which  flow  to  the  west, 
north,  south,  east. 

Locate  Zambesi,  Congo,  Yukon,  Columbia,  Amur, 
Danube. 

What  river  basins  have  large  alluvial  plains  in  these 
valleys  ? 

Locate  Hoang  Ho,  Yang-tse  Kiang,  Po,  Orinoco. 

What  river  basins  have  their  longer  courses  in  pri- 
mary highlands  ? 

By  what  rivers  is  the  Brazilian  land  mass  drained? 
The  Guiana?  Appalachian?  Deccan?  Spain? 

Locate  the  great  lakes;  of  what  rivers  are  they  the 
reservoirs  ? 

Locate  Madagascar,  Japan  Islands,  Great  Britain, 
West  Indies. 

Describe  Australia.  Compare  its  eastern  slope  with 
other  short  slopes.  Which  short  slope  does  it  most  re- 
semble ?  Compare  the  Darling  river  basin  with  the  basin 
of  the  San  Francisco. 

Have  pupils  mold  and  draw  each  continent  and  de- 
scribe as  they  work. 

Mathematical  Geography. — Parallel  with  the  above 


286  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

review,  lessons  should  be  given  in  elements  of  mathe- 
matical geography. 

Teachers  should  keep  steadily  in  mind  the  direct 
practical  purpose  of  teaching  in  this  stage  of  the  course 
the  relations  and  influence  of  the  sun  upon  the 
earth.  The  purpose  of  this  is  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
distribution  of  heat  and  moisture,  and  of  the  modifications 
brought  about  by  different  degrees  of  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. These  are  the  essential  factors  in  the  study  of  cli- 
mate. 

Climate  determines  the  use  of  the  structure,  and 
structure  in  a  marked  degree  modifies  climate.  Both 
seem  to  be  the  two  halves  of  a  great  whole,  which  nour- 
ish and  support  life,  plant  and  animal,  and  at  the  same 
time  determine  the  forms  and  modes  of  life.  There  are 
many  very  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  clear  under- 
standing, on  the  part  of  children;  of  the  real  relations  of 
the  sun  to  the  earth.  Long  experience  in  attempting  to 
teach  the  rotation  of  the  earth  and  its  revolution  around 
the  sun  has  clearly  proved  that,  although  pupils  may  seem 
to  understand  the  relations,  which  must  be  taught  to  them 
by  apparatus,  they  gain  a  very  confused  and  inadequate 
notion  of  the  whole  matter.  When  we  think  how  many 
centuries  very  wise  men,  who  had  the  same  phenomena 
which  surrounds  us  to  observe,  were  in  finding  out  that 
which  we  now  know  to  be  true,  some  light  may  be  thrown 
upon  the  difficulties  which  confront  the  conscientious 
teacher  at  every  step.  The  vast  difference  between  the 
apparent  and  the  real  causes  puzzles  the  children,  as  it 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  287 

puzzled  tliouglitf ul  students  for  ages  before  the  truth  was 
discovered. 

Long,  careful  investigations  should  be  mads  in  the  phe- 
nomena that  appeal  directly  to  the  senses  before  any  at- 
tempt is  made  to  teach  the  real  causes  of  the  earth's  mo- 
tions and  its  relations  to  the  sun.  Among  the  many  sub- 
jects for  investigation  are  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun,  moon  and  stars,  the  stars  that  are  always  above  the 
horizon,  the  yearly  changes  in  the  position  of  the  sun, 
causes  and  effects  of  heat,  slanting  rays  of  the  sun, 
changes  of  the  seasons,  length  of  days,  months  and 
years,  apparent  causes  of  long  and  short  days,  the  uses  of 
the  thermometer  and  barometer.  This  work  should  be  a 
part  of  the  course  from  the  beginning,  but  if  the  neces- 
sary results  have  not  prepared  the  class  for  the  next  step, 
there  is  no  way  but  to  begin  at  the  most  elementary 
phases  of  the  investigation.  These  and  similar  questions 
may  be  may  be  used  to  test  the  pupils'  knowledge : 

When  does  the  sun  rise  ?  When  does  it  set  ?  Through 
what  does  the  sun  appear  to  move?  Where  is  the  sun 
when  it  is  half  way  between  rising  and  setting?*  Is  it  al- 
ways in  the  same  place  at  noon?  How  do  you  know? 
What  is  the  place  called  right  over  our  heads?  Is  the 
sun  ever  there  ?  In  what  direction  from  the  zenith  is  it 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS, — Teachers  should  make  a  thorough  ftndy  of  mathe- 
matical geography  before  they  attempt  to  tear.h  it.  The  following  books  are 
recommended:  Astronomical  Geography,  Jackson,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  a  email 
book  of  73  pages,  presenting  the  whole  subject  in  a  clear  and  compact  form.  Hux- 
ley's Physiography,  Appleton,  pages  317-377,  inclusive,  an  excellent  exposition 
of  the  subject.  Johnston's  Physical  Geography,  Stanford,  London,  pages  101-122, 
inclusive. 


288  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

at  noon?  Is  it  always  the  same  distance  from  zenith  at 
noon?  How  can  you  tell?  Measure  the  slant  of  rays. 
This  can  be  done  by  marking  the  slant  on  different  days  at 
precisely  the  same  time.  When  is  your  shadow,  in  the 
sunlight,  the  longest?  When  the  shortest?  When  is  it 
longest  at  noon  ?  When  the  shortest  ?  If  the  sun  were  in 
the  zenith,  how  long  would  your  shadow  be?  What  time 
in  the  year  is  the  sun  at  noon  the  farthest  from  the  zenith  ? 
When  is  it  nearest  ?  Does  the  sun  always  rise  in  the  same 
place  ? 

You  say  that  the  sun  rises  in  the  east;  aoes  it  rise 
exactly  east  of  you?  When  does  it  rise  a  little  north  of 
east?  When  south  of  east?  When  exactly  east?  Let 
pupils  have  time  to  investigate.  If  the  sun  rises  a  little 
north  of  east  some  days,  where  does  it  set  on  the  same 
days?  The  sun  seems  to  move  in  what  kind  of  a  line  over 
our  heads  ?  Draw  the  arc  of  the  circle  in  which  the  sun 
seems  to  move?  If  the  sun  moves  in  half  of  a  circle  over 
our  heads  in  the  day  time,  what  does  it  do  at  night  ?  What 
is  the  place  called  under  our  feet  directly  opposite  the 
zenith  ?  Does  the  sun  pass  through  another  arc  of  a  circle 
at  night  ?  What  are  the  two  arcs  put  together  ?  Is  the 
path  of  the  sun  over  our  heads  always  just  half  a  circle? 
Why?  Why  not?  What  is  the  place  called  where  the 
sun  rises  and  sets  ?  How  long  does  it  take  for  the  sun  to 
go  from  that  part  of  the  horizon  where  it  rises  to  that  part 
of  the  horizon  where  it  sets  ?  What  is  the  time  called  when 
the  sun  is  making  its  arc  from  one  part  of  the  horizon  to 
the  other?  Perhaps  the  sun  moves  faster  on  some  days 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  289 

than  others;  is  that  possible?  Perhaps  it  has  farther  to 
go  on  the  longest  days ;  is  that  possible.  At  what  time  in 
the  year  does  the  sun's  rays  at  noon  have  the  greatest 
slant?  At  what  time  in  the  year  are  the  sun's  rays  the 
nearest  to  a  vertical  line?  Are  the  sun's  rays  ever  vertical 
where  you  live?  If  you  should  travel  far  enough  toward 
the  south,  do  you  think  you  would  come  to  a  place  where 
the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  at  noon?  Where  would  the  sun 
be  at  noon?  If,  after  finding  the  place  where  the  sun's 
rays  are  vertical  at  noon,  you  should  travel  farther  south 
which  way  would  the  sun's  rays  slant  then?  If  you 
should  travel  straight  north,  and  every  day  at  noon  measure 
the  slant  of  the  sun's  rays,  what  would  you  find  ? 

There  is  a  place  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Scandina- 
vian Peninsula  where  travelers  go  to  see  the  midnight  sun; 
the  sun  rises  in  the  southeast  like  a  great  ball  of  fire,  and 
appears  to  move  in  a  very  small  arc  of  a  circle  toward  the 
western  horizon;  very  soon  it  sinks  down  under  the  hor- 
izom  How  can  you  explain  this  ?  There  are  places  on  the 
earth  where  the  sua  does  not  rise  for  six  months,  and 
when  it  does  rise  it  does  not  set  for  six  months.  Does  it 
take  a  year  to  go  around  in  the  great  circle,  or  does  it  go 
around  in  a  circle  every  twenty-four  hours  as  it  does  with 
us? 

Where  does  the  moon  rise  ?  Where  does  it  set  ?  How 
long  does  ic  take  to  go  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
horizon?  Where  do  the  stars  rise?  Does  the  sun  always  go 
in  the  same  path  through  the  heavens  ?  How  often  does  it 
change  its  path?  Every  day?  What  is  the  difference  be- 


290  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

tween  the  slant  of  the  sun's  rays  at  noon  when  it  is  farthest 
south  and  when  it  is  farthest  north?  Draw  on  the  board 
the  difference  in  angles.  Explain  the  apparent  spiral 
movement  of  the  sun.  What  day  do  the  sun's  rays  at  noon 
slant  the  most?  About  the  21st  of  December.  What  day 
do  the  sun's  rays  at  noon  slant  the  least?  About  the  21st 
of  June.  What  days  is  the  slant  of  the  sun's  rays  half 
way  between  the  greatest  slant  and  the  least  slant  ?  What 
is  the  length  of  the  day  when  the  sun's  rays  at  noon  slant 
the  most?  When  they  slant  the  least?  When  the  slant 
at  noon  is  half  way  between  the  greatest  slant  and  the 
least  slant?  How  do  you  account  for  these  changes? 
What  two  days  in  the  year  have  the  same  length  ? 

Proofs  that  the  Earth  is  a  Sphere  or  Spheroid.— 

In  all  this  teaching  the  very  great  value  of  elementary  les- 
sons in  form  will  be  fully  appreciated.  Give  pupils  a  sketch 
of  the  ancient  beliefs,  and  the  discoveries  in  regard  to  the 
shape  of  the  earth.  The  subject  presents  excellent  op- 
portunities to  train  the  insight  and  reason  of  pupils.  Tell 
pupils  just  as  little  as  possible;  lead  them  to  question  the 
validity  of  the  proofs  very  closely;  very  profitable  discus- 
sions may  be  had  in  this  direction. 

Principal  Proofs.  —  Objects  moving  from  and 
towards  you  on  a  level  surface,  and  moving  from  and 
towards  other  objects. 

a.  The  tops  of  ships  (masts  and  sails)  are  seen  first 
when  coming  toward  you. 


NOTES  —  SIXTH  GRADE.  291 

b.  The  tops  of  masts  are  last  seen  when  sailing  from 
you;  they  seem  to  sink  into  the  water. 

c.  Sailors  see  heights  (tops  of  mountains  and  hills) 
first  when  they  approach  the  land.     Would  these  facts  he 
possible  on  a  flat  surface?     How  would  ships  disappear? 
The  surface  of  the  earth  might  be  curved  and  yet  the 
earth  not  be   a   sphere.     Would  not  there  be  the  same 
effect  upon  a  cylinder  or  upon  an  egg-shaped  body?  What 
would  you  be  obliged  to  prove  before  these  facts  could  be 
taken  as  final  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere? 

2.  Horizon.     What  is  a   circle  ?     What  is  a  plane 
of    a    circle?      What    is    the    horizon?      Do    the    sky 
and  the  earth  really  meet?      How   can   you  prove  that 
they   do   not   meet?      Where  are    you   in  the   horizon? 
If  you  change  your  place,  what  effect  has  it  upon  the 
horizon?     How  can  you  make  the  horizon  larger?     How 
smaller?     If  you  were  to  go  as  far  from  the  earth  as  we 
are  from  the  moon,  how  would  the  earth  look?     If  the 
earth   were  flat,  where   would   the   horizon  be?     If  the 
earth  were  ovoid  in  shape,  what  would  be  the  shape  of  the 
horizon?     What  is  an  ellipse?     Is  it  true  that  the  horizon 
in  all  parts  of  the  earth  is  a  circle?     How  do  you  know? 

3.  Shadow  of  the  Earth  on  the  Moon. — What  is  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon?     What  makes  the  moon  give  light? 
How  can  you  prove  it?     Why  is  there  not  a  full  moon  all 
the  time  ?     What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth's  shadow  upon 
the  moon?     What  form  of  a  shadow  does  a  plane  bounded 
by  a  circle  cast?     Then  how  does  a  circular  shadow  cast 
by  the  earth  prove  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere? 


292  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

4.  Circumnavigation  of  the  Earth. — Tell  pupils  of 
the  voyage  of  Magellan   (in  1520)  and  others,  who  early 
sailed  around  the  world.     Is  the  circumnavigation  of  the 
earth  conclusive  proof  that  it  is  a  sphere?     Why?     Why 
not?     If  the  earth  were  a  cylinder  or  an  ovoid,  could  it 
be  circumnavigated? 

5.  Other  Proofs.     In  digging  canals  engineers  make 
allowances  for  the  curvature  of  the  earth.     Weights  of 
matter  are  nearly  the  same   on  all  parts  of  the  earth.     If 
the  earth  were  not  a  sphere,   weights   would   differ   on 
different  parts  of   the  earth's  surface.     Explain.     A  good 
opportunity  for  lessons  on  gravitation. 

Give  all  the  proofs  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere.  What 
is  the  most  conclusive  proof?  Is  any  one  proof  conclu- 
sive? Tell  pupils  about  the  flattening  at  the  poles.  Des- 
cribe the  popular  theory  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and 
the  different  geological  periods.  Show  fossils  and  pictures 
of  primitive  animals. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth. — The  ancients  believed  that 
the  sun,  moon  and  stars  moved  once  a  day  around  the 
earth.  How  did  they  try  to  prove  what  they  believed? 
How  was  it  discovered  that  the  earth  rotates  once  a  day 
upon  its  axis? 

What  proofs  are  there  that  the  earth  rotates  ? 

Drop  a  weight  from  a  high  tower,  and  it  will  be 
thrown  toward  the  east.  Why? 

What  is  the  earth's  axis?  Why  is  not  this  axis  the 
longest  diameter  of  the  earth  ?  What  are  the  ends  of  the 


NOTES — SIXTH  GRADE-  293 

axis  called?  In  which  direction  does  the  earth  rotate? 
If  it  rotated  toward  the  west,  where  would  the  sun  rise? 
How  long  does  it  take  for  the  earth  to  revolve  once?  How 
many  degrees  does  it  revolve  in  an  hour?  Why  do  we 
not  feel  the  movement  of  the  earth?  Why  do  not  ob- 
jects at  the  antipodes  fall  off?  Do  all  parts  of  the  earth's 
surface  move  with  the  same  degree  of  swiftness?  Why 
not  ?  Where  does  the  surface  move  the  fastest  ?  Where 
the  slowest? 


Revolution  of  the  Earth  around  the  Sun. — Have 
pupils  hring  all  possible  proofs  for  and  against  the  revo- 
lution of  the  earth. 

What  would  be  the  result  if  me  earth  simply  rotated 
upon  its  axis,  and  did  not  revolve  around  the  sun? 

Tell  pupils  about  the  apparent  changes  in  the  piaces 
of  the  constellations  as  seen  from  the  earth.  The  path  of 
the  earth  around  the  sun  is  called  the  earth's  orbit.  This 
path  is  an  ellipse.  The  sun  is  at  one  focus  of  the  ellipse. 
Illustrate  ellipse  and  foci.  What  is  the  plane  of  a  circle? 
What  is  the  plane  of  an  ellipse?  Illustrate.  What  is 
the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit?  The  plane  of  the  earth's 
orbit  is  also  called  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  Illustrate 
and  explain  perihelion  and  aphelion.  The  plane  of  the 
earth's  orbit  cuts  the  sun  into  two  hemispheres.  The 
earth  revolves  around  the  sun.  In  what  place  does  it  re- 
volve ? 

The  earth  always  revolves  on  its  axis,  (one  axis),  and 


294  HOW   To   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

this  axis  is  always  parallel  to  itself,  it  always  points  toward 
the  North  Star.  Explain. 

The  axis  of  the  earth  is  inclined  66J  degrees  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit,  and  23J  degrees  from  a  line  perpendic- 
ular to  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  Illustrate.  Illustrate  the 
path  of  the  earth  around  the  sun.  On  how  much  of  the 
earth  does  the  sun  shine  all  the  time?  Where  are  the 
northernmost  rays  of  the  sun  about  March  22d  ?  Where 
are  the  southernmost  rays  of  the  sun  at  this  time?  How 
long  are  the  days  and  nights  at  this  time,  all  over  the 
the  earth?  Why?  Explain  equinox. 

How  many  degrees  is  it  from  the  northernmost  rays 
of  the  sun  to  the  southernmost?  What  part  of  a  circle 
is  180  degrees?  Do  the  sun's  rays  ever  cover  more  than 
180  degrees,  north  and  south,  or  east  and  west?  Any 
less?  What  rays  of  the  sun  slant  the  most?  Do  these 
rays  always  have  the  same  slant?  In  what  direction  does 
the  earth  move  ?  To  the  east.  In  what  direction  do  the 
northernmost  rays  of  the  sun  move  after  the  vernal  equi- 
nox? Explain  vernal.  Why  do  they  move  toward  the 
south  beyond  the  North  Pole?  How  far  south  beyond 
the  North  Pole  do  they  go?  When  do  they  stop?  23$ 
degrees  south  and  beyond  the  North  Pole.  At  what  time 
in  the  year  do  they  reach  this  limit?  21st  of  June. 
Where  are  the  southernmost  rays  at  this  time  ?  How  long 
is  a  day  at  this  time  23$  degrees  from  the  North  Pole? 
How  long  is  a  day  at  the  same  time  23J  degrees  from  the 
South  Pole? 

The  earth  always  moves  toward  the  east,  and  the  axis 


NOTES — SIXTH  GRADE.  295 

of  the  earth  always  points  in  the  same  direction.  How  do 
you  account  for  the  fact  that  the  most  slanting  rays  are 
moving  north  or  south  all  the  time?  Illustrate  by  the 
globe. 

After  June  21st  or  the  summer  solstice,  which  way  do 
the  most  slanting  rays  north  of  the  Equator  move?  The 
most  slanting  rays  south  of  the  equator?  When  do  the 
most  slanting  rays  north  of  the  equator  reach  the  North 
Pole?  About  the  22d  of  September.  *  Where  are  the 
southernmost  rays  at  this  time?  What  is  the  length  of 
the  days  and  nights  at  this  time?  Explain  autumnal 
equinox.  In  what  direction  do  the  northernmost  rays 
move  from  this  time?  The  southernmost  rays?  How 
far  beyond  the  South  Pole  do  the  rays  of  the  sun  go? 
When  do  they  reach  the  limit  of  23|  degrees  ?  Where 
are  the  northernmost  rays  at  this  time?  How  long  is  a 
day  at  the  South  Pole  at  this  time  ?  How  long  is  a  night 
at  the  North  Pole?  This  is  the  winter  solstice  or  turning 
point  of  the  sun,  (Wendepunct,  as  the  Germans  call  it). 
How  long  does  it  take  the  earth  to  move  from  the  position 
in  the  winter  solstice  to  its  position  in  the  spring  equinox  ? 
How  long  does  it  take  for  the  earth  to  move  from  its  pos- 
ition in  the  spring  solstice  clear  around  the  sun  to  the 
spring  solstice  again?  Explain  leap  year.  Tell  pupils 
about  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  When  does  the  sun  shine 
from  pole  to  pole  ?  When  does  it  shine  from  23  J  degrees 
south  and  beyond  the  North  Pole  to  23-J  degrees  north  of 
the  South  Pole? 

What  part  of  the  earth's  surface  does  the  sun  always 


296  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

shine  upon  ?  Why  docs  not  the  sun  shine  upon  the  same 
parts  all  the  time? 

1.  Suppose  the  earth's  axis  were  in  the  piano  of  its 
orbit  or  in  the   plane  of  the  ecliptic  and  always  pointed 
toward  the  sun;  what  would  be  the  result?     Illustrate  and 
lead  pupils  to  discover. 

2.  Suppose  the  earth's  axis  were  perpendicular  to  t  he 
plane  of  the  ecliptic;  what  would  be  the  result? 

3.  Suppose^  the  earth's  axis  were  inclined  45  degrees 
to  the  plane  of  its  orbit;  what  would  be  the  result? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  the  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis  23^  degrees? 

Measurement  of  the  Earth's  Surface. — It  is  of 

great  importance  to  locate  exactly .  places  on  the  earth's 
surface,  and  to  know  exactly  how  far  different  places  arc 
from  each  other.  This  could  not  be  done  by  using  miles 
alone  to  measure.  For  instance  you  will  understand  that 
by  using  miles  alone  as  a  standard  of  measurement  no  places 
could  he  easily  located  in  the  ocean,  and  indeed  many  could 
not  be  very  well  located  upon  the  land.  A  plan  lias  been 
invented  to  locate  exactly  all  places  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  The  measuring  by  this  plan  is  done  by  imaginary 
circles.  What  is  a  circle?  What  is  an  imaginary  circle? 
What  is  the  plane  of  a  circle?  How  many  degrees  are 
therein  a  circle?  What  is  1-360  of  a  circle?  What  is 
1-60  of  a  degree?  How  long  in  miles  is  a  degree?  Why 
can  you  not  tell  the  length  of  degree  in  miles?  There  are 
two  kinds  of  circles  of  a  globe,  great  circles  and  small 


NOTES — SIXTH  GRADE. 

circles.  Illustrate  by  the  great  envies  on  &  globe. 
Through  what  points  do  all  the  great  eireles  except  the 
equator  pass?  Into  what  does  the  plane  of  eaeh  great 
circle  divide  the  earth?  How  many  great  eireles  eouhl  be 
drawn  on  the  globe?  Why  ean  yon  not  tell  the  number? 
What  is  the  distanee  of  these  great  circles  (except  the 
equator)  from  each  other?  Where  are  they  nearest  each 
other?  AN" here  are  they  farthest  from  each  other?  If  two 
great  circles  are  ten  decrees  from  each  other  at  the  equator 
how  many  degrees  are  they  apart  near  the  poles?  How 
many  degrees  are  there  on  a  great  circle  from  the  north 
to  the  south  pole?  One-half  of  a  great  circle,  measured 
from  pole  to  pole,  is  called  a  mernliun.  How  many  de- 
grees are  there  on  a  meridian  from  the  north  pole  to  the 
equator?  Each  great  circle  measures  the  circumference  of 
the  earth.  Small  circles  are  imaginary  lines  running  clear 
round  the  globe  from  east  to  west.  Illustrate.  Only  one  of 
these  circles  extending  east  and  west  measures  the  circum- 
ference of  the  globe:  which  one  is  that?  Where  is  the 
equator?  How  main  degrees  is  the  equator  from  each 
poll'?  Into  what  does  the  plane  of  the  equator  divide  the 
earth?  Into  what  would  the  plane  of  any  one  of  the 
small  circles  divide  the  earth?  Where  are  these  circles 
the  shortest?  Where  the  longest?  In  how  many  ways 
do  the  great  circles  resemble  the  small  circles?  In  how 
many  ways  do  they  differ?  What  is  the  greatest  differ- 
ence? Great  circles  (except  the  equator)  are  used  to 
measure  distances  east  and  west  around  the  globe. 

Distance  is  measured    from  meridian  to  meridian. 


298  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  meridian  from  which  measurements  are  made  is  called 
zero — (0)  on  the  map  or  glohe. 

Most  maps  and  globes  mark  that  meridian  zero 
which  passes  through  Greenwich,  England.  What  de- 
gree is  the  meridian  that  is  opposite  zero  on  the  globe  ? 

The  distances  east  and  west  are  measured  by  degrees 
between  great  circles,  but  the  measurements  take  place  on 
the  small  circles.  How  can  you  explain  this  fact?  The 
distance  east  and  west  around  the  globe  is  called  longitude, 
and  the  great  circles  are  called  lines  of  longitude. 

Small  circles  are  used  to  measure  distances  north  and 
south  around  the  globe. 

Distance  is  measured  by  small  circles  from  the  equator 
which  is  marked  zero  like  the  meridian  of  Greenwich.  The 
small  circles  are  called  lines  of  latitude. 

Longitude  east  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  east 
longitude;  west  of  that  meridian  is  west  longitude. 

Latitude  north  of  the  equator  is  north  latitude.  South 
of  the  equator  is  south  latitude. 

How  many  degrees  of  north  latitude  are  there?  How 
many  degrees  of  south  latitude?  How  many  degrees  of 
east  longitude?  Of  west  longitude? 

If  you  were  to  travel  east  on  a  line  of  latitude,  how 
far  in  that  direction  is  it  possible  for  you  to  go  ? 

In  order  to  locate  places  exactly  on  the  earth  you  must 
use  both  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude.  Why  ?  How  is 
a  place  located  by  latitude  and  longitude  ? 

What  is  a  hemisphere  ? 

What  divides  the  earth  into  hemispheres  ? 


NOTES  —  SIXTH   GRADE.  299 

Into  what  would  the  plane  of  the  equator  divide  the 
earth? 

The  plane  of  what ,  great  circle  divides  the  earth 
into  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres  ? 

Pupils  should  answer  the  following  questions  by  using 
the  small  globes  on  which  they  have  made  models  of  the 
continents  in  putty. 

What  continents  are  wholly  within  the  northern  hem- 
isphere ?  What  continents  are  wholly  within  the  southern 
hemisphere  ?  What  is  the  eastern  hemisphere  ?  What  is 
the  western  hemisphere?  What  continents  and  islands 
are  divided  by  the  equator  ?  What  continents  are  divided 
by  the  meridian  of  zero  (  Greenwich )  ?  What  continents 
are  divided  by  the  180th  meridian?  Is  this  meridian  in 
east  or  west  longitude?  What  continents  are  divided  by 
the  90th  meridian  east  longitude?  90th  meridian  west 
longitude?  How  many  degrees  apart  are  these  two 
meridians  ?  Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  and 
longitude  does  North  America  extend?  South  America? 
Eurasia?  Europe?  Asia?  Africa?  Australia?  Aus- 
tralasia? Which  continent  extends  over  the  greatest 
number  of  degrees  of  latitude  ?  Of  longitude  ?  Which 
the  least  number  of  degrees  of  latitude  ?  Of  longitude  ? 
What  meridians  extend  over  the  largest  plains  ?  What  mer- 
idians do  not  extend  over  continents  ?  What  small  circles 
do  not  touch  continents.  What  small  circles  extend  over 
the  most  land  surface? 

How  many  degrees  of  longitude  does  the  sun  shine 
over  in  a  day  ?  How  many  times  does  the  sun  rise  in  24 


300  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

hours?  How  many  times  does  it  set  in  24  hours?  How 
many  times  is  it  noon  ?  How  many  times  is  it  midnight  ? 
How  long  does  it  take  for  the  sun  to  pass  from  the  90th  de- 
gree west  longitude  to  the  90th  degree  east  longitude? 
Give  pupils  several  problems  of  this  kind. 
How  many  minutes  of  time  does  it  take  the  earth  to 
turn  one  degree?  How  far  does  the  earth  turn  in  one 
minute  of  time?  If  it  is  12  o'clock  over  the  zero  meridian, 
in  how  many  hours  will  it  be  12  o'clock  over  the  180th 
meridian?  When  it  is  12  o'clock  over  the  180th  meridian, 
what  time  is  it  over  the  meridian  at  Greenwich  ?  Over 
the  90th  meridian  east  longitude?  90th  meridian  west 
longitude  ?  If  you  were  to  travel  east,  which  way  would 
you  move  the  long  finger  of  your  watch?  Why? 

Give  pupils  a  large  number  of  examples  in  longitude 
and  time. 

Over  wThat  circle  could  you  travel  without  changing  the 
time  of  your  watch  ?  If  a  telegram  should  be  sent  from 
Berlin, 'Germany,  at  8:30  A.  M.,  at  what  time  would  it  reach 
New  York?  If  in  sailing  east  you  should  pass  the  180th 
meridian  at  1 2  o'clock  midnight  on  Thursday,  what  would 
you  call  the  next  day  ? 

Explain  to  pupils  the  way  mariners  make  their  reckon- 
ing at  sea.  Explain  the  parallax.  See  Astronomical 
Geography,  page  19. 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  301 

SEVENTH    GRADE. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  much  of  the  work 
laid  down  for  the  sixth  grade  must  be  done  in  the  seventh 
grade.  The  progress  of  tJte  work  depends  very  much  upon 
the  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  teacher. 

Distribution  of  heat. —  Give  pupils  lessons  in 
physics  upon  air,  heat,  light  and  the  forms  of  water.  By 
simple  experiments  pupils  should  discover  the  laws  of 
evaporation  and  condensation  of  water,  effects  of  heat  and 
the  causes  of  winds. 

Why  is  it  warmer  in  the  daytime  than  it  is  at  night? 
What  time  of  the  day  is  generally  the  warmest?  Why? 
Is  the  sun  nearer  at  noon?  Why  does  it  grow  gradually 
warmer  from  sunrise  until  noon?  Why  does  it  grow 
cooler  in  the  afternoon  ?  At  what  time  is  the  sun  nearer 
the  earth,  in  summer  or  in  winter?  Refer  to  the  earth's 
orbit.  Why  is  it  warmer  in  the  summer  than  in  winter? 
When  is  it  generally  coldest  in  winter?  Why?  When 
is  it  generally  warmest  in  summer?  Why? 

Lead  pupils  to  discover  the  fact  that  the  effects  of 
heat  conveyed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  all  depends  upon  the 
xlunt  of  the  rays.  Draw  diagram  to  show  that  slanting 
rays  cover  more  surface  than  vertical  rays.  The  more  rays 
slant  the  more  surface  they  cover,  the  nearer  vertical  they 
are  the  less  surface  they  cover.  It  is  warmest  where  the 
most  rays  fall  and  coldest  where  the  fewest  rays  fall. 

Where  are  the  coldest  places  on  the  earth?     Why? 


302  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Where  are  the  warmest  places?  Why?  What  makes  the 
slant  of  the  sun's  rays  change  in  the  daytime?  When  in 
the  daytime  are  the  sun's  rays  the  nearest  vertical ?  When 
do  they  slant  the  most?  What  effects  do  these  different 
inclinations  of  the  sun's  rays  have?  Why  are  some  days 
longer  than  others?  When  are  the  days  the  longest  in 
the  year?  Where  is  the  earth  in  its  orbit  when  the  days 
are  longest?  When  are  the  days  the  shortest  in  the  year? 
Where  is  the  earth  then  in  its  orbit  ?  When  are  the  days 
and  nights  equal  in  length  ?  Where  is  the  earth  in  its 
orbit  at  that  time? 

The  atmosphere  that  covers  the  earth  is,  some  say, 
fifty  miles  in  depth — it  is  probably  much  deeper.  The 
average  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  in  the  course 
of  its  orbit  is  93,000,000  miles.  At  Aphelion  it  is  94,500, 
000  miles  distant.  At  Perihelion  91,500,000.  The  rays 
of  the  sun  have  to  go  through  these  distances  before  they 
reach  the  earth.  The  rays  pass  through  immense  space 
unobstructed  until  they  reach  the  envelope  of  the  earth, 
the  atmosphere.  What  happens  then  ?  The  air  absorbs 
the  heat  in  the  rays,  so  that  less  heat  reaches  the  earth. 
The  longer  the  distance  in  the  atmosphere  through  which 
the  sun's  rays  pass  the  greater  the  amount  of  heat  the  air 
absorbs.  Which  rays  pass  through  the  longer  distances, 
vertical  rays  or  slanting  rays?  Why? 

If  you  were  to  measure  the  angles  of  inclinations  of 
the  sun's  rays  at  exactly  noon  for  many  days  in  succes- 
sion, what  would  you  discover?  Illustrate  how  the 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  303 

angles  change  every  day?  How  much  does  the  angle 
change  each  day?  Very  little,  measuring  hy  degrees 
from  a  vertical  line.  On  what  day  is  the  angle  the  most 
acute?  Draw  lines  on  board  and  illustrate.  On  what 
day  in  the  year  is  the  angle  most  obtuse?  What  is  the 
difference  in  time  between  the  two  days? 

The  inclination  or  slant  of  the  sun's  rays  changes  very 
slowly;  little  by  little  each  day.  The  sun  appears  a  very 
little  nearer  the  zenith  each  day  or  a  very  little  farther 
from  it. 

The  zones. —  Use  the  map  and  globe.  The  word  zone 
means  belt.  The  zones  are  belts  of  surface  that  extend 
around  the  earth ;  they  are  bounded  by  the  poles  and  lines 
of  latitude.  Zones  indicate  the  general  distribution  of 
heat  over  the  earth's  surface. 

How  the  zones  are  bounded. — On  the  21st  of  De- 
cember where  are  the  northernmost  rays  of  the  sun? 
What  circle  do  they  cut  on  that  day  ?  How  far  is  the  cir- 
cle from  the  north  pole ?  Why  is  it  23^  degrees ?  What 
part  of  the  earth  is  in  darkness  on  the  21st  of  December? 
Where  are  the  most  slanting  rays  south  of  the  equater  at 
this  time,  21st  of  December?  To  what  degree  of  latitude 
beyond  the  equator,  do  they  reach  ?  How  many  degrees  are 
the  most  slanting  rays  south  of  the  equator  from  the  most 
slanting  rays  north  of  the  equator  ?  Where  are  the  south- 
ernmost rays  on  the  21st  of  June?  Where  are  the  most 
slanting  rays  north  of  the  equator?  Why  is  the  Arctic 


304  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Circle  located  23|  degrees  from  the  north  pole?  Why  is 
the  Antarctic  Circle  located  23-J  degrees  from  the  s«  nth 
pole?  How  wide  are  both  frigid  zones  taken  together? 
Over  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  do  the  vertical  rays  of 
the  sun  shine  in  a  year?  What  is  the  northern  limit  of 
the  vertical  rays?  At  what  time  in  the  year  are  the  ver- 
tical rays  at  their  northern  limit?  What  are  the  limits  of 
the  slanting  rays,  north  and  south,  at  this  time?  What 
is  the  northern  limit  of  vertical  rays  called  ?  The  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  Tell  pupils  about  the  constellation  of  Cancer. 
What  is  the  southern  limit  of  the  vertical  rays?  Tropic 
of  Capricorn.  Tell  pupils  about  the  constellation.  Over 
how  many  degrees  of  latitude  do  the  vertical  rays  move  in 
one  year?  How  many  degrees  north  of  the  equator?  How 
many  degrees  south  of  the  equator?  At  what  times  in  the 
year  are  the  rays  vertical  over  the  equator  ?  What  are  the 
limits  of  the  slanting  rays,  when  the  vertical  rays  are  over 
the  equator.  How  many  degrees  in  width  is  the  Torrid 
zone?  Over  how  many  degrees  of  latitude,  that  are  nev- 
er reached  by  vertical  rays,  do  slanting  rays  shine  dur- 
ing the  year?  How  many  degrees  of  latitude  north  of  the 
equator?  How  many  degrees  south  of  the  equator?  How 
wide  are  the  two  temperate  zones  taken  together?  How 
wide  are  all  the  zones  taken  together  ? 

Describe  the  changes  in  temperature  from  winter  to 
spring.  Give  causes  and  effects,  from  spring  to  summer; 
from  summer  to  autumn;  from  autumn  to  winter. 

Parts  of  what  continents  and  what  natural  divisions 
are  in  the  torrid  zones.  Parts  of  what  mountain  systems? 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  305 

What  plains?  .What  continent  has  the  most  surface  in 
the  Torrid  zones?  What  peninsulas?  What  great  islands? 
Parts  of  what  oceans?  What  river  basins  are  partially  in 
the  Torrid  zones?  Ask  the  same  questions  about  .the 
Temperate  and  the  Frigid  zones.  What  zone  contains  the 
most  land?  What  zone  the  most  water?  In  what  zone 
is  there  the  least  land? 

Effects  of  heat  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

— At  what  time  in  the  day  is  it  generally  the  warmest? 
Why?  Do  we  have  the  warmest  weather  on  the  21st  of 
June?  The  coldest  weather  on  the  21st  of  December? 
Why  not?  If  the  sun's  rays  gave  all  its  heat  to  the  air 
directly,  what  would  be  the  result  ?  Why  do  we  often  have 
very  warm  summer  nights?  If  the  sun's  rays  did  not 
heat  the  ground,  what  would  happen  after  the  sun  set? 
Explain  the  "  falling11  of  dew  and  the  dew-point.  Lead 
pupils  to  discover  that  the  air  is  mainly  heated  by  the  ra- 
diation of  heat  from  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  that  heat  is 
stored  in  the  soil  and  water  by  the  sun's  rays.  Explain 
conduction — the  imparting  of  heat  from  the  soil  or  water 
near  the  surface  to  soil  or  water  below.  The  sun's  rays 
heat  the  ground  or  water,  the  ground  and  water  impart 
(radiate)  their  heat  to  the  air.  Which  receives  the  more 
heat,  water  or  land?  Which  gives  up  (radiates)  its  heat 
the  more  rapidly,  water  or  land?  What  kind  of  soils  re- 
ceive heat  the  quickest?  What  kinds  of  soil  radiate  heat 
the  quickest  ?  What  kinds  of  soil  radiate  heat  the  slowest  ? 
In  what  kinds  of  soil  does  heat  reach  down  the  deepest  by 


306  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

conduction  ?  Which  is  generally  the  warmer  in  the  day- 
time, water  or  land  ?  Why  ?  Which  is  warmer  at  night  ? 
Why?  Which  is  the  colder  in  winter,  water  or  land? 
Why? 

Effects  of  heat  upon  the  atmosphere. — Lessons 
in  physics  should  be  given  to  enable  pupils  to  answer  these 
questions.  What  is  the  effect  of  heat  upon  air?  Why 
does  the  expanded  air  rise?  How  do  you  know  that  ex- 
panded air  rises?  Make  several  experiments.  How  far 
does  the  air  go  up?  Where  does  it  stop  ascending?  Why 
do  we  open  the  windows  to  cool  a  room  ?  Why  does  cool 
air  rush  into  a  warm  room  through  open  doors  and  win- 
dows? What  is  wind?  What  causes  the  air  to  move? 
Air  moves  up  and  down  (vertically)  and  from  side  to  side 
(horizontally).  Do  you  call  air  moving  directly  up  or 
down,  wind?  When  does  air  move  up?  When  does  it 
move  down?  When  does  it  move  horizontally?  Is  the 
air  moving  when  you  do  not  feel  it? 

What  part  of  the  earth  receives  the  greatest  amount 
of  heat?  Why?  What  part  the  least?  Why?  What 
effect  has  the  intense  heat  upon  the  Torrid  zone? 
Immense  masses  of  air  are  constantly  forced  up  for 
some  distance  above  the  surface.  What  effect  does 
this  expansion  have  upon  the  air  north  and  south  of 
the  Torrid  zone  ?  How  far  does  this  movement  extend  ? 
When  does  the  air  move  the  most  rapidly?  Where  in  the 
Torrid  zone  is  there  the  most  expansion  of  air?  Under 
the  vertical  rays.  What  winds  are  caused  by  this  move- 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  307 

ment?  How  are  winds  named?  There  are  two  great 
movements  of  air,  one  from  the  south  toward  the  equator, 
and  one  from  the  north  toward  the  equator.  In  what  di- 
rection does  the  earth  rotate?  What  parts  of  the  earth 
move  the  fastest?  Why?  What  the  slowest?  Why? 
What  can  you  say  of  the  differences  in  rapidity  of  move- 
ment between  the  poles  and  the  equator?  We  will  think 
of  a  great  mass  of  air  moving  from  the  North  Frigid  zone 
toward  the  Torrid  zone.  The  earth  is  moving  on  its  axis 
360  degrees  in  24  hours.  The  air  moving  south  cannot 
keep  up  with  the  movement  of  the  firm  earth.  It  must 
fall  behind.  The  farther  the  air  goes  toward  the  south 
the  more  space  must  it  cover  in  trying  to  keep  up  with  the 
movement  of  the  earth.  Why?  The  moving  air  or  wind 
constantly  falls  behind  because  the  earth  goes  faster  than 
it  can  go.  From  what  direction  do  the  constant  winds 
of  the  north  and  south  blow?  What  do  we  call  these 
winds?  What  effect  do  these  winds  have  upon  the  tem- 
perature of  the  land  over  which  they  blow?  They  make 
the  temperature  cooler,  just  as  the  air  coming  through  the 
doors  and  windows  cools  the  air  in  this  room. 

Where  do  you  think  the  great  mass  of  air  heated  in  the 
Torrid  zone  goes?  Why  does  it  not  move  directly  north 
and  south  cl  ose  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  ?  How  far  does  it 
go  up  ?  Where  does  it  go  then  ?  How  is  it  possible  for  warm 
air  to  move  toward  cold  air  ?  By  what  other  force  besides 
heat  is  air  moved  ?  Just  think  of  the  tremendous  pressure  of 
two  immense  currents  of  air  moving  thousands  of  miles, 
one  from  the  north  and  one  from  the  south.  Then  re- 


308  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

member  that  the  great  quantities  of  air  leaving  the  north 
and  south  must  be  replaced.  The  heated  air  rises  into  the 
cold  air  above  and  then  owing  to  the  pressure  behind  it  it 
hurries  each  way  toward  the  Frigid  zone,  in  mighty  cur- 
rents. These  currents  of  air  move  one  toward  the  north 
and  one  toward  the  south,  but  you  will  see  that  they  do 
not  move  directly  toward  the  poles  at  the  Torrid  zone. 
These  currents  of  air  which  begin  their  movements  toward 
the  north  and  south,  move  also  toward  the  east  with  the 
earth.  Why  ?  As  they  move  in  northerly  and  southerly 
directions  the  circles  over  which  they  pass  become,  as  you 
know,  smaller  and  smaller;  that  is,  the  distances  they  pass 
over  toward  the  east  become  gradually  less  and  less,  and 
the  consequence  is  that  these  great  air  currents  seem  to 
keep  ahead  of  the  movement  of  the  earth;  they  move  faster 
toward  the  east  than  the  earth  moves.  In  what  directions 
do  they  move?  North-east  and  south-east.  Which  cur- 
rent moves  north-east?  Which  south-east?  Winds  are 
not  named  from  the  direction  in  which  they  move,  but 
from  the  direction  from  which  they  come.  Name  the 
wind  north  of  the  equator.  South  of  the  equator.  We 
have  then  moving  over  the  earth  four  mighty  currents  of 
air,  two  move  from  the  poles  to  the  equator;  name  them. 
And  two  move  from  the  equator  to  the  poles;  name  them. 
There  is  a  great  difficulty  which  you  will  see  at  once.  Two 
currents  of  air  south  of  the  equator,  or  more  strictly  speak- 
ing, south  of  the  constantly  changing  vertical  rays,  move 
in  opposite  directions.  The  same  is  true  of  the  constant 
winds  under  the  vertical  rpys.  Now  the  great  masses  of 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  309 

air  cannot  move  against  each  other,  for  if  they  did  one 
would  stop  (or  neutralize)  the  other.  How  do  you  supr 
pose  this  difficulty  is  overcome?  The  great  air  currents 
move  over  or  under  each  other.  There  are  surface  winds, 
(moving  close  to  the  surface)  and  upper  winds  (moving 
above  the  surface  winds).  You  have  seen  clouds  that 
move  in  opposite  directions  from  the  surface  current,  have 
you  not?  How  do  the  winds  change  from  an  upper  cur- 
rent to  a  surface  current,  and  from  a  surface  current  to 
an  upper  current? 

The  northeast  and  southeast  winds,  which  move 
steadily  from  the  poles  to  the  Torrid  zone,  meet  at  the 
variable  zone  or  belt  covered  by  vertical  rays.  In  this  belt, 
owing  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  avast  current  of  heated 
air  is  constantly  rising  above  the  surface  currents  and 
flowing  over  them  in  either  direction:  one  to  the  north 
and  the  other  to  the  south.  Each  current  of  air  moves 
over  the  opposite  surface  current  until  it  reaches  a  parallel 
of  latitude  near  the  tropic  of  Cancer  in  the  north  and  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn  in  the  south ;  at  these  lines  the  upper 
currents  sink  down  and  become  surface  currents,  moving 
toward  the  northeast  and  southeast  over  the  temperate 
zones.  Within  the  tropics,  the  surface  winds  are  from 
the  northeast  and  southeast.  They  are  called  Trade 
Winds.  Why? 

Within  the  temperate  zones  the  surface  winds  are 
from  the  southwest  and  northwest  ;  they  are  called  the 
Return  Trade  Winds.  Why?  These  winds  blow  nearly 
from  the  west  and  are  also  called  westerly  winds.  The  great 


310  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

polar  currents  start  from  regions  of  ice  and  snow,  in  their 
journey  toward  the  south  and  north  as  surface  currents, 
but  they  rise  near  the  polar  circles  (Arctic  and  Antarctic) 
to  upper  currents  flowing  above  the  Westerly  and  Return 
Trade  Winds  until  they  sink  down  at  the  tropics  and  from 
the  surface  winds  within  the  Torrid  zone.  Whenever  the 
air  rises  in  great  masses  to  form  upper  currents,  or  when 
one  current  sinks  and  another  rises,  there  is  a  belt  of 
calms.  In  a  belt  of  calms  the  air  does  not  move  horizont" 
ally,  but  vertically.  Thus  there  is  a  belt  of  calms  under 
the  vertical  rays;  there  is  another  belt  of  calms,  called  the 
Calms  of  Cancer,  and  another  called  the  Calms  of  Capri_ 
corn.  Draw  a  map  of  the  world  showing  the  great  wind 
currents. 

This  is  a  general  description  of  the  winds  which  blow 
constantly  toward  and  from  the  equator.  There  are  how- 
ever a  great  many  exceptions  and  modifications  of  the  gen- 
eral movements  of  the  air.  For  instance  the  great  equato- 
rial belts  of  calms  (Doldrums)  is  north  of  the  equator; 
the  north  and  southeasterly  currents  become  surface  cur- 
rents north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  south  of  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn;  the  southwest  winds  become  westerly  winds. 
The  most  marked  exceptions  to  the  general  movements  of 
the  constant  winds  are  brought  about  by  the  unequal  heat- 
ing of  land  and  water.  Land  heats  quickly  and  radiates 
heat  quickly.  Water  heats  slowly  and  radiates  its  heat 
slowly.  The  land  is  often  warm  when  the  water  is  cool, 
and  the  water  is  often  warm  when  the  land  is  cool.  On 
some  coasts  the  wind  blows  to  the  land  from  the  sea  in  the 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  311 

day  time,  and  from  the  land  to  the  sea  during  the  night. 
How  do  you  account  for  these  alternate  land  and  sea  breezes? 
On  a  great  portion  of  the  coast  of  South  America  and  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa  the  winds  blow  from  the  sea  over 
the  land  for  a  season,  and  then  change  and  blow  from  the 
land  to  the  sea  for  another  season?  When  do  the  winds 
blow  inland?  Why?  When  do  they  blow  to  the  sea? 
W^hy?  These  winds  are  called  monsoons  (seasons).*  The 
principal  monsoon  in  the  world  blows  across  the 
Indian  Ocean  between  Africa  and  Asia.  When  does  it 
blow  toward  and  over  Africa?  Why?  When  does  it 
blow  toward  Asia?  Why?  Another  monsoon  blows  be- 
tween Australia  and  Asia.  Explain.  Tell  pupils  about 
the  Sirocco  Simoon,  Texas  Northers,  Tyfoons,  Cyclones, 
Tornadoes  and  Hurricanes. 

Modifications  of  heat  by  elevations.— Why  is  it 

colder  on  mountain  tops  and  great  elevations  than  it  is  on 
the  plains  below  ?  Explain  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
barometer.  How  are  heights  measured  by  a  barometer? 
Explain  areas  of  low  pressure  and  areas  of  high  pressure. 
Why  is  cold  air  denser  than  warm  air?  Why  is  air  near 
the  ocean  level  denser  than  air  upon  heights?  What 
causes  density  of  air  ?  What  causes  thinness  or  rarification 
of  air?  In  what  regions  can  you  find  all  the  differences 
of  temperature  that  you  find  in  all  the  zones?  What 
mountain  tops  in  the  Torrid  zone  are  always  covered  with 


*  Monsoons  blow  over  Mexico  from  and  toward  the  Pacific,  and  over  the 
Southern  States  from  and  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


312  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

snow?     Name  the  areas  which  have  a  temperate  climate 
in  the  Torrid  zone. 

Uses  of  winds. — Tell  me  all  the  uses  of  winds. 
What  are  the  most  important  uses  of  winds?  Which  is 
the  most  important  use — carrying  moisture,  carrying  heat, 
or  carrying  cold?  Where  is  the  moisture  needed?  Where 
is  the  heat  needed?  Where  is  the  cold  needed?  How  do 
the  winds  carry  moisture?  Where  does  the  moisture 
which  waters  the  earth  come  from  ?  What  part  of  the 
ocean  supplies  the  most  water?  Why?  What  part  sup- 
plies the  least  water?  Why?  From  what  direction  does 
the  moisture  come  which  waters  the  Temperate  and  the 
Frigid  zones  ?  What  winds  bring  this  moisture  ?  Where 
does  the  moisture  come  from  which  supplies  the  Torrid  zone? 
What  are  clouds?  What  moves  the  clouds?  Lessons 
upon  the  forms  of  clouds.  What  is  the  difference  between 
vapor  and  clouds  ?  How  is  the  vapor  in  clouds  condensed 
into  rain?  Explain  how  cold  mountain  tops  and  high 
elevations  condense  vapor  ?  How  do  the  clouds  get  to  the 
mountain  tops  ?  How  do  cold  air  currents  condense  vapor 
into  rain? 

Ocean  currents. — We  have  been  studying  the  great 
ocean  of  air  that  completely  envelops  the  earth  at  a  depth 
of  more  than  fifty  miles.  We  know  how  this  immense 
mass  of  air  moves  in  great  currents  from  north  to  south 
and  from  south  to  north.  We  have  learned,  too,  the  uses 
of  these  moving  currents;  how  they  carry  and  distribute 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  313 

moisture,  lieat  and  cold;  how  they  move  the  sails  of  ships 
to  their  ports ;  how  they  bring  health  and  vigor  from  high 
to  low  elevations,  and  how  they  sweep  away  impure  air. 
The  ocean,  like  the  atmosphere,  is  a  great  moving  mass. 
It  does  not  cover  the  earth's  surface  entirely  :  it  is  not  so 
easily  moved,  and  it  is  not  so  deep  as  the  atmosphere. 
There  are  great  ocean  currents  as  well  as  great  air  cur- 
rents. Lead  pupils  to  discover  the  causes  of  ocean  cur- 
rents. Why  does  the  water  of  the  ocean  have  a  tendency 
to  move  toward  the  equator?  What  water  takes  the  place 
of  the  evaporated  water?  Why  cannot  ocean  currents 
move  steadily  in  one  direction  for  great  distances  like  the 
Trade  and  Return  Trade  winds  ?  What  effect  have  the  con- 
tinents upon  the  ocean  currents?  Draw  chart  of  ocean 
currents,  study  the  principal  currents,  give  names,  general 
direction,  and  shores  upon  which  they  infringe.  Give  all 
the  uses  of  ocean  currents.  Show  how  and  when  cold 
and  warm  ocean  currents  modify  climate.  Describe  the 
Gulf  Stream.*  The  Japan  current  (Kuro  Siwo),  the 
Arctic  currents. 

The  constant  winds  have  a  great  effect  upon  ocean  cur- 
rents. How?  What  effect  has  a  violent  wind  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ocean?  Now,  if  a  strong  wind  should  blow 
constantly,  instead  of  hours  and  days,  in  one  direction, 
what  effect  would  it  have?  What  effect  has  a  warm  ocean 
current  upon  the  air  that  moves  over  it  ?  What  effect  has 
a  cold  ocean  current  upon  the  air  that  moves  over  it  ? 


*  It  has  been  discovered  that  a  very  small   part  comparatively  of  the  so- 
called  Gulf  Stream  really  passes  into  and  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


314  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

When  a  wind  moves  over  and  in  the  same  direction  with 
a  warm  ocean  current,  what  is  the  result  ? 

Distribution  of  heat  by  ocean  currents  and 
winds. —  The  distribution  of  heat  depends  principally 
upon  the  vertical  and  slanting  rays  of  the  sun;  the  de- 
grees of  slant  or  inclination  of  the  rays  determine  the 
quantity  of  heat  conveyed  to  any  given  surface.  The 
slant  of  rays  gradually  changes  as  the  earth  moves  around 
the  sun  in  its  orbit.  The  nearer  vertical  the  rays,  the 
warmer  the  surface  they  fall  upon;  the  farther  they  are 
from  a  vertical  line,  the  colder  the  surface  under  them 
becomes.  The  vertical  rays  move  over  47  degrees  of  lati- 
tude in  one  year. 

The  territory  66J  degrees  north  of  the  equator  is 
heated  entirely  by  slanting  rays;  territory  43  degrees 
north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  43  degress  south  of  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn  is  under  slanting  rays  all  the  year 
round.  23-J-  degrees  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  23^ 
degrees  south  of  the  Antartic  Circle  are  under  the  slant- 
ing rays  of  the  sun  only  a  part  of  the  year,  the  remainder 
of  the  year  the  sun  does  not  shine. 

The  length  of  the  day  has  much  to  do  with  the  dis- 
tribution of  heat.  A  summer  day  in  the  cold  north  or 
south  is  very  long.  How  long  is  a  day  at  the  poles  ? 
How  long  is  a  day  in  summer  at  St.  Petersburg?  At 
Stockholm  ?  At  Berlin  ?  What  effect  does  a  number  of 
long  days  have  upon  the  temperature  of  a  place?  Why? 
It  is  almost  as  warm  in  summer  in  many  parts  of  the  Tem- 
perate zones  as  it  is  in  the  Torrid  zone. 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  315 

If  the  continents  were  level  and  there  were  no  great 
ocean  currents  nor  constant  winds,  the  distribution  of 
heat  would  be  nearly  equal  along  the  same  small  circles, 
that  is,  you  would  find  the  same  temperature  at  the  same 
time  in  the  year  all  along  each  line  of  latitude.  The  tem- 
perature in  Labrador  would  be  the  same  as  in  Scotland, 
but  there  are  great  differences  in  the  distribution  of  heat 
in  the  same  degree  of  latitude  around  the  earth.  Where- 
ever  a  warm  ocean  current  goes,  it  carries  heat  to  the 
coasts  it  washes.  A  cold  ocean  current  carries  cold.  The 
same  is  true  of  constant  winds,  especially  where  they  blow 
over  warm  or  cold  ocean  currents. 

What  effect  has  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  climate  of 
Europe?  The  Arctic  Current  upon  the  northern  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America?  Compare  the  temperature  of 
Labrador  with  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Scandinavia. 
Compare  the  temperature  of  different  countries  under  the 
latitude  of  40  degrees  north.  Compare  the  climate  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Eurasia  under  the  latitude  of  55.  Why 
is  Siberia  so  much  colder  than  Great  Britain  ? 

Show  pupils  chart  of  Isothermal  lines,  Appleton's 
Physical  Geography,  page  66. 

Distribution  of  moisture. — Without  rain  the  con- 
tinents would  be  barren  deserts.  In  our  study  of  heat, 
winds  and  ocean  currents  we  have  had  a  glimpse  of  the 
wonderful  machinery  by  which  the  continents  are  watered. 
The  ocean  is  the  great  reservoir  which  supplies  the  land 
with  moisture;  the  moving  currents  of  air,  the  winds, 


316  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

carry  the  clouds;  the  cold  tops  of  the  mountains  and  cold 
air  currents  wring  out  the  vapor  and  scatter  it  over  the 
land  to  give  nourishment  to  every  living  thing.  When  it 
has  given  life  to  plants  by  creeping  through  the  soil,  it 
gushes  out  in  springs,  flows  down  in  brooks  and  rivers 
back  again  to  the  great  reservoir,  the  ocean.  Wonderful, 
is  it  not? 

What  winds  carry  the  most  moisture?  Why?  What 
part  of  the  ocean  supplies  the  winds  with  the  most  mois- 
ure?  Why?  What  winds  carry  the  least  moisture? 
Why?  When  do  you  find  that  the  largest  quantities 
of  rainfall  upon  the  earth?  Describe  periodical  rains; 
tropical  rains.  See  description  of  the  Llanos,  page  — . 

Draw  large  map  of  all  the  continents  and  oceans 
upon  the  black-board,  for  the  study  of  rainfall.  Color  the 
map,  indicating  degrees  of  rainfall  as  the  investigation  pro- 
ceeds. See  how  far  pupils  can  go,  without  help,  in  making 
this  chart.  Have  them  color  the  putty  maps  on  their 
little  globes  as  they  locate  the  regions  of  rainfall. 

Most  physical  geographies  contain  good  charts.  The 
one  in  Burghaus'  Physicalisher  Atlas  is  the  best.  Ask 
these  and  similar  questions  about  each  region  as  it  is  ex- 
amined. What  winds  bring  the  rain?  Over  what  ocean 
currents  do  the  winds  pass?  What  effect  have  the  ocean 
currents  ( over  which  the  winds  pass)  upon  the  moisture 
carried  by  the  winds  ?  What  condenses  the  vapor  in  the 
clouds  (over  this  region)?  Does  it  rain  here  at  all 
times  during  the  year?  Why?  Why  not?  Why  has 
one  slope  a  great  rainfall  and  the  opposite  slope  little  or 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  317 

none?      The    following    classification     may    assist    the 
teacher. 

Regions   of  Greatest  Rainfall.— Fearfy  average 

over  78.74  inches. 

1.  Eastern  Charts — Western  slopes;  monsoons. 

2.  Indo-China,    eastern    slope;    Malay    Peninsula; 
monsoons. 

3.  Sumatra,   Java,   Borneo  and  islands  east   of — ; 
monsoons. 

4.  Southeastern  China,  monsoons. 

5.  Abysinnian  Plateau,  monsoons  and  tropical  rains. 

6.  Basin  of  Niger,  lower  parts  tropical  rains. 

7.  Coast  of  the  Atlantic   near  the  Gulf  of  Guinea; 
tropical  rains. 

8.  Lower  part  of  Brazilian  slope.     .  . 

9.  Upper  part   of  Amazon  basin  and  left  slope  of 
Orinoco  basin ;  tropical  rains. 

10.  Southern    part   of    the   short    slope    of    South 
America. 

11.  Eastern  coast  of  Honduras. 

12.  Northern    part    of    the    short    slope   of   North 
America  ( South  of  Alaska. ) 

13.  Northern  slope  of  Guiana. 

Regions  of  great  rainfall. —  Yearly  average  from 
51.18  to  78.74  inches. 

1.  Great  forest  region  of  Africa,  including  Soudan; 
tropical  rains. 


318  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

2.  Long  slopes  of  South  America — including  basins 
of  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  La 
Plata  basin. 

3.  Isthmus    of    Panama    and     region    of     Central 
America. 

4.  South-eastern  part  of  North  America,  lower  part 
of  Mississippi  basin,  Alabama  system,  Florida,  and  Atlan- 
tic coast  just  north  of  Florida. 

5.  Eastern  slope  of  Australia. 

6.  Southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas. 

7.  China,  south  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  basin. 

8.  Northern  slope  of  the  Cantabrians  and  Pyrenees. 

9.  Southern  slope  of  the  Alps. 

10.  Caucasus  Mountains. 

11.  Eastern  part  of  Japan  Islands. 

12.  South  western  part  of  Scandinavia. 

Regions  of  lesser  rainfall. — Yearly  average  from 
23.62  to  51.18  inches. 

1.  Eastern   part  of   North  America,  including  left 
slope  of  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  lower  part  of  right 
slope;  St.  Lawrence  basin  and  eastern  part  of  Hudson's 
Bay  basin. 

2.  Mexico. 

3.  Southwestern  part  of  La  Plata  basin. 

4.  All  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the  Russian 
slope  and  southern  part  of  Spanish  Peninsula. 

5.  Region  in  Africa  north  of  10  degrees  north  lati- 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  319 

tude,  and  south  of  the  steppe  that  borders   the  Desert  of 
Sahara. 

6.  Region  south   of   the   great   Forest     region    of 
Sahara,  extending  to  the  Kalahari  Desert. 

7.  Mountains  of  eastern  Australia. 

8.  China,  including  basin  of    the  Yang-tse  Kiang 
and  part  of  the  Hoang  Ho  basin. 

9.  Ganges  basin,  upper  part  eastern   slope  of   the 
Deccan. 

10.  Extreme  southern  part  of  Arabia. 

11.  Eastern  slope  of  Madagascar. 

Regions     of   comparatively     little   rainfall.— 

Yearly  average  7.87  to  23.62  inches. 

1.  Great  basin  of  North  America,  Mackenzie  basin, 
and  upper  part  of  the  right  slope  of  the  Mississippi  basin. 

2.  Siberian  slope. 

3.  Basin  of  the  Amoor. 

4.  Upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Hoang  Ho,   (not 
at  its  source.) 

5.  Asia  Minor,  Armenian  Highlands  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Pbiteau  of  Iran. 

Region    nearly    rainless.  —  Yearly  average  under 

7.87  inches. 

1.  Desert  of  Sahara. 

2.  Northern  part  of  the  Peninsula  of  Arabia;  south- 
ern part  of  the  Plateau  of  Iran ;  Plateau  of  Gobi ;  a  greater 
part  of  the  basin  of  the  Aral  Sea;  Basin  of  the  Indus, 


320  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

with  the  exception  of  the  mountains  at  the  source. 

3.  The  Kalahari  Desert. 

4.  Kamchatka. 

5.  Central  part  of  Australia. 

6.  A  long  strip  of  land  east  of  the  Andes,  extending 
from  Patagonia  to  north  of  30  degree  south  latitude. 

7.  Western  slope  of  the  Andes,  from  32  to  about  40 
degrees  south  latitude.* 

Distribution  of  soil  and  vegetation. — The  know- 
ledge of  structure  and  climate  leads  directly  to  the  study 
of  plant  and  animal  life  upon  the  earth.  Plant  life  de- 
pends upon  soil,  heat  and  moisture.  A  general  study  of 
the  distribution  of  soils  should  be  the  first  step  in  the 
study  of  life  upon  the  continents.  In  order  to  lead  pupils 
to  discover  the  nature  of  soils  and  their  distribution,  the 
following  classification  may  be  used:  1,  very  fertile;  2, 
fertile;  3,  arable;  4,  cultivable;  5,  barren. 

Elementary  lessons  upon  the  different  kinds  of  soils 
and  their  relative  fertility  should  be  given.  For  this  pur- 
pose specimens  of  soils, vlike  vegetable  mold,  alluvial  soil, 
loam,  clay,  sand,  etc.,  should  be  observed.  A  few  lessons 
in  the  chemistry  and  composition  of  soils  would  be  very 
profitable.  The  chart  of  rainfall  is  a  good  means  of 
beginning  the  study, 

1.   Very  fertile.     All  lands  in  the  tropics  and  sub- 

*  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  regions  of  rainfall  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
as  the  lines  bounding  them  are  very  irregular  and  often  one  region  includes 
another.  This  classification  may  assist  the  teacher  in  observing  the  chart  of 
rainfall. 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  32  \ 

tropics  that  receive  abundance  of  moisture  may  be  classed 
under  this  head.  Pupils  may  easily  find  these  regions  on 
the  chart  of  rainfall.  In  the  temperate  zones  very  fertile 
soil  is  found  in  the  valleys  of  large  river  basins,  as  the 
Mississippi,  Yang-tse  Kiang,  Hoang  Ho,  Nile,*  Ganges,* 
Po  and  lower  parts  of  the  Volga,  Dnieper  and  Don  basins. 

2.  Fertile.     Lands  that  may  be  classed  as  fertile  are 
generally  in  the  same  river  basins  with  very  fertile  regions. 
The  lower  parts  of  the  basins  of  great  rivers  are  generally 
very  fertile  while  the  upper  parts  are  fertile. 

3,  4.     By  far  the  largest  area  of  land  surface  in  the 
temperate  zones  may  be  called  cultivable  or  arable.    Arable 
land  by  fertilization  and  good  husbandry  may  be  made  to 
produce  very  fair  crops.     In  most  arable  regions  there  are 
strips  of  land,  usually  near  rivers  (alluvial  soil),  that  are 
fertile.    The  St.  Lawrence  basin,  Appalachian  slope,  north- 
ern slope  of  Europe,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  upper 
part  of  Siberian  slope  north  of  the  Altai  mountains  may 
called  arable. 

5.  Barren.  Lack  of  heat  and  lack  of  moisture  are 
the  two  causes  of  infertility.  The  chart  of  rainfall  will  show 
the  tracts  barren  from  lack  of  moisture.  The  frozen 
regions  of  the  North  and  elevated  regions  can  be  easily 
found  by  the  pupils.  Pupils  should  be  led  to  investigate 
the  regions  lacking  rainfall  that  are  or  can  be  made  fertile 
by  irrigation.  Nile  valley,  upper  part  of  the  right  slope 
of  the  Mississippi  basin;  parts  of  the  Great  Basin  of  North 
America;  basin  of  the  Amur  Daria,  (Oxus);  lower  parts  of 

*  In  sub-tropical  regions. 


322  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  basins  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  Atbara;  part  of  the  desert 
of  Sahara. 

In  these  investigations  pupils  will  get  a  clear  gen- 
eral view  of  the  distribution  of  soils,  and  their  compar- 
ative fertility  or  sterility. 

Now  opens  a  rich  field  for  investigation  and  study, 
namely,  the  distribution  of  plants  over  the  earth.  Pupils 
who  have  had  elementary  lessons  in  plants  all  through  the 
course  up  to  this  grade,  will  enter  into  this  study  with 
great  earnestness  and  profit.  A  simple  general  classi- 
fication of  plants  may  be"  made  and  the  distribution  of 
vegetable  life  studied  from  a  botanical  standpoint.  Ele- 
mentary lessons  should  be  given  in  botany  in  this  grade. 
Something  should  be  learned  of  the  nature  and  growth  of 
vegetation;  roots,  tubers,  stems,  trunks,  bark,  leaves  and 
fruit  should  be  observed.  A  few  terms  like  exogenous,  en- 
dogenous, deciduous,  should  be  understood.  Lessons  should 
be  given  upon  the  different  staple  vegetable  products  of 
the  world:  like  wheat,  rice,  rye,  millet,  manioc,  bananas, 
potatoes,  maize,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  flax,  etc.  A  cabinet 
or  small  museum  of  vegetable  products  can  be  made  very 
interesting  and  instructive;  such  a  cabinet  should  contain 
seeds,  fruits,  leaves,  woods,  and  specimens  of  prepared  food, 
cloth  and  other  manufactured  articles.  Profitable  lessons 
may  be  given  to  pupils  upon  foods,  and  upon  materials 
for  clothing  and  shelter:  what  they  are;  where  they  grow; 
how  they  are  prepared;  are  good  subjects  for  investigation 
and  study.  Draw  a  very  large  map  of  the  world  on  the 
black-board;  indicate  structure,  ocean  currents,  prevailing 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  323 

winds,  and  rainfall.  Fill  up  the  map  with  names  step  by 
step,  as  each  subject  is  studied.  The  distribution  of  vege- 
table products  may  be  studied  from  several  standpoints. 
The  pedagogical  order  is  from  the  general  to  the  particular. 

Distribution  of  vegetation  by  zones.—  Appleton's 
Physical  Geography,  Map  pp.  94,  95  gives  eight  plant  zones 
as  follows: 

1.  Equatorial    Zone   between    the  isotherms  of    78 
degrees  north  and  south. 

2.  The  Tropical  Zone  between  the  isotherms  of  78 
degrees  and  69  degrees. 

3.  The  Sub-Tropical  Zone,  between  the  isotherms  of 
69  degrees  and  62  degrees. 

4.  The  Warm  Temperate  Zone,  between  the  isotherms 
of  62  degrees  and  53  degrees. 

5.  Cold  Temperate  Zone,  between  the  isotherms  of 
53  degrees  and  42  degrees. 

6.  The  Sub-Arctic  Zone,  between  the  isotherms  of 
42  degrees  and  35  degrees. 

7.  The  Arctic   Zone,  between   the  isotherms  of  35 
degrees  and  28  degrees. 

8.  The  Polar  Zone,  from  the  isotherms  of  28  degrees 
to  the  pole. 

See  description  of  Plant  Zones  pp.  91,  92,  93. 

This  classification  may  be  too  complex  for  pupils  of 
the  seventh  grade.  A  simpler  plan  of  distribution  of  plants 
is  taken  from*  Guyot's  Physical  Geography  pp.  97,  100. 
See  description,  Map  pp.  98,  99. 


324  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Northern  Cold  Zones. 

2.  Arctic  Zone. 

3.  Cold-Temperate  Zone. 

4.  Temperate  Zone. 

5.  Warm-Temperate  Zone. 

6.  Tropical  Zone. 

7.  Southern  Zones. 

Descriptions  of  the  vegetation  of  each  zone  should  be 
given  orally  and  read.  See  Niles'  Advanced  Geography 
pp.  43,  44,  45,  46.  Our  World  No.  2,  pp.  10,  11,  12,  13. 
Maury's  Physical  Geography  pp.  102  to  108  inclusive. 
Voyage  in  the  Sunbeam,  by  Mrs.  Brassey,  contains  some 
fine  descriptions  of  tropical  vegetation. 

Compare  the  vegetation  of  the  different  zones. 

Forest  lands  and  grassy  plains.  — A  study 
of  these  two  divisions  may  lead  to  a  closer  general  view  of 
the  distribution  of  vegetable  products.  Some  of  the  largest 
areas  are  given. 

1.  Tropical  forests: 

a.  Amazon  basin. 

b.  Forest  region  of  Africa. 

c.  Pine  region  of  North  America. 

d.  Forests  of  Northern  Europe. 

e.  Forests  of  Central  America. 

2.  Grassy  Plains: 

1.  Prairies. 

2.  Steppes. 

3.  Pampas. 

4.  Llanos. 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  325 

Elementary  lessons  on  all  the  trees  within  the  obser- 
vation of  pupils.  Specimens  of  woods  should  be  collected 
and  lessons  given  upon  the  kinds  and  uses  of  timber. 
Lessons  011  the  different  kinds  of  grass  and  their  uses. 

Plants  peculiar  to  a  very  moist  climate,  and  plants 
peculiar  to  a  dry  climate. —  The  striking  differences  between 
the  foliage  in  regions  of  great  rainfall  and  regions  of  very 
little  rainfall  should  be  noted.  The  hanging  leaves  and 
leafless  trees  of  Australia,  the  broad  leaves  in  wet  tropical 
regions,  the  long  roots  of  trees  (Eucalyptus)  and  grasses 
searching  for  moisture  in  dry  soil  (grasses  used  to  stop 
the  drifting  sand),  are  excellent  topics  for  discussion. 

The  botanical  distribution  of  plants  is  an  exceedingly 
interesting  study,  but  such  a  study  necessitates  a  long 
preparation  in  elementary  botany.  When  elementary 
science  takes  its  proper  and  legitimate  place  in  human  de- 
velopment, when  primary  and  grammar  schools  are  filled 
with  the  study  of  nature  as  the  basis  of  all  other  studies, 
it  will  be  possible  in  the  seventh  grade  to  study  the  dis- 
tribution of  plant  life  in  its  relations  to  the  science  of 
botany. 

Distribution  of  vegetable  products  in  relation 
to  their  use.— 

FOOD   PLANTS,    CEREALS. 

Rice,  Rye, 

Wheat,  Oats, 

Millet  or  dhurra,  Barley, 

Maize  or  corn,  Buckwheat. 


326  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

TUBEKS   AND  ROOTS. 

Potato,  Turnip, 

Manioc  (tapioca),  Beet, 

Yam  and  sweet  potato,  Carrot. 

FRUIT   TREES. 

Banana,  Bread  fruit, 

Date  palm,  Lemon, 

Cocoa  palm,  Peach, 

Orange,  Cherry, 

Apple,  Plum. 
Fig, 

FRUIT   SHRUBS. 

Grapes  (raisins),  Quince, 

Whortleberry,  Currants, 

Cranberry,  Prunes. 

BEVERAGES,    SPICES   AND   LUXURIES. 

Coffee  tree,  Nutmeg  tree, 

Tea  plant,  Pine  Apple, 

Mati,  Olive  tree, 

Tobacco  plant,  Cinnamon  tree  (bark), 

Indian  hemp  (hasheesh),        Cayenne  pepper  (pod), 

Poppy  (opium),  Cacao  (chocolate), 

Capirs,  Sago  palm  (pith), 

Clove  tree,  Mustard  (seeds  of  plant). 

Ginger, 

NUTS. 

Almond  (tree),  Pecans  (tree), 

Walnuts,    "  Chestnuts   " 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  327 

PLANTS  PRODUCING  SUGAR. 

Sugar  Cane,  Palm  (a  variety  of  date), 

Sorghum,  Maple  tree. 

Beet, 

EDIBLE  LEAVES. 

Cabbage,  Spinach, 

Cauliflower,  Dandelion, 

Celery,  Water  cress. 
Lettuce, 

MEDICINAL   PLANTS. 

Cinchona  tree ( bark,  quinine  )  Rhubarb  ( root ), 
Cuca  (cocoaine),  Castor  bean, 

Belladonna,  Poppy  (opium), 

Aloes,  Camphor. 

CLOTHING   PLANTS. 

Cotton,  Jute, 

Flax,  Caoutchouc, 

Hemp,  Mulberry  tree   (leaves   food 

of  silk  worm). 

PLANTS  USED  FOR  DYES  AND   FOR  MANUFACTURERS 
GENERALLY. 

Turpentine  )  ,  Linseed  oil  (flax), 

f  Mpme  tree), 

Resin  )  Indigo, 

Gum  copal,  Logwood, 

Gum  Arabic,  Cotton     seed      oil      (cotton 

Caoutchouc  (India  rubber),         plant). 

Plants  used  for  shelter. — From  trees  man  obtains 
the  principal  plant  materials  for  building;  grasses,  leaves 
and  shrubs  are,  however,  extensively  used.  Investigations 


328  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

should  be  made  by  pupils  concerning  the  different  kinds 
of  timber  used  for  building  and  manufacturing.  Strength 
and  durability  of  woods  should  be  investigated.  Causes 
of  decay  may  also  be  examined. 

Questions  to  be  asked  in  regard  to  each  Vegetable  Pro- 
duct. What  is  it?  Is  it  a  tree,  shrub  or  plant?  How 
does  it  grow  ?  Is  it  cultivated  ?  Does  it  grow  wild  ?  What 
are  its  uses  ?  How  is  it  prepared  for  use  ?  What  is  its 
market  value?  Where  does  it  grow?  Write  the  name 
of  the  product  on  the  map  wherever  it  is  cultivated  to  any 
considerable  extent?  In  what  regions  does  it  grow?  In 
what  continents?  In  what  natural  divisions,  (river  basins, 
plains,  mountain  systems)?  Why  does  it  grow  here? 
(pointing).  What  kind  of  soil  does  it  need?  Why? 
What  temperature  does  it  need?  How  much  moisture? 
Tell  pupils  of  the  vegetation  of  former  geological  periods. 
How  coal,  peat,  petroleum,  was  stored  up.  Stored  sun 
heat. 

Review. — Questions  should  be  asked  which  will  review 
all  the  geographical  knowledge  which  pupils  have  acquired. 

In  what  regions  does  rice  grow?  What  kind  of  soil 
is  needed  to  produce  rice?  In  what  natural  division  does 
the  greatest  quantity  of  rice  grow?  Name  all  the  great 
wheat-growing  regions.  In  what  natural  divisions  is  the 
most  wheat  raised?  What  kind  of  soil  do  rye,  oats,  bar- 
ley and  buckwheat  need?  What  cereal  is  raised  principally 
in  the  tropics  and  sub-tropics?  What  cereals  are  raised 
mostly  in  the  Cold  Temperate  Zones?  Rice,  it  is  said,  is 
the  principal  food  of  more  than  one-third  of  the  human 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  329 

race.  Name  the  principal  vegetable  products  ot  the  Torrid 
Zone.  Name  the  tropical  fruits.  The  fruits  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone.  What  plants  produce  spices  ?  What  plants 
produce  beverages  ?  Where  do  they  grow  ?  What  is  th£ 
most  useful  beverage?  From  what  plants  is  whiskey 
made?  Rum  and  alcohol?  Wine?  Gin?  The  leaves  of 
what  plants  are  used  for  food?  Beverage?  Luxury? 
Manufactures?  Prom  what  plants  are  oils  obtained? 
What  trees  furnish  food?  What  beverage?  What  lux- 
uries? Medicine?  What  tree  is  of  the  most  use  to  man- 
kind? Probably  Palm.  For  how  many  purposes  is  the 
palm  tree  used?  What  are  the  principal  trees  used  in 
building?  What  timber  is  most  used?  Why?  What 
are  the  principal  woods  used  in  making  furniture  ?  Of 
what  kinds  of  wood  are  posts  and  railroad  ties  made? 
Why?  What  are  the  ornamental  woods?  Where  do 
they  grow?  What  is  the  principal  wood  used  in  build- 
ing ships?  What  in  making  school  desks?  For  what 
purposes  are  the  hard  woods  used?  The  soft  woods? 
What  are  raisins  ?  Of  what  plants  is  paper  made  ?  Flax, 
hemp,  cotton,  wood?  How  is  paper  made?  Visit  a  paper 
manufactory  if  you  can.  Have  each  pupil  draw  a  chart  of 
vegetable  products.  What  are  the  principal  plants  in  a 
desert?  Give  the  main  products  of  each  continent  and 
tell  in  what  natural  division  of  the  continent  they  grow. 
What  vegetable  product  has  any  one  continent  which  no 
other  continent  has  ?  Where  is  maize  indigenous  ?  The 
potato?  .Tobacco?  What  continent  furnishes  the  most 
wheat?  The  least  wheat?  The  most  corn?  The  least 


330  HOW  TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

corn?  The  most  grapes?  The  most  manioc?  Name  all 
the  roots  that  furnish  food  or  medicine.  If  you  wished 
to  be  a  farmer  to  what  country  would  you  emigrate? 
Why?  Where  would  you  go  to  make  money  by  raising 
cattle?  Why?  What  is  the  best  region  in  the  world  for 
lumbering?  Why?  For  vineyards?  For  making  tar, 
turpentine  and  resin  ?  Where  are  the  largest  trees  in  the 
world?  Tell  in  writing,  all  the  uses  of  trees.  Why  are 
trees  planted  on  our  western  prairies?  What  trees  fur- 
nish valuable  gums?  What  gum  is  the  most  valuable? 
In  what  country  do  you  prefer  to  live,  excepting,  of  course, 
your  own  home?  Why? 

Distribution  of  Animals. — See  Elementary  Lessons 
in  Physical  Geography,  Geike,  pp.  337,  366,  inclusive; 
Guyot's  Physical  Geography,  pp.  106,  111,  inclusive; 
Maury's  Physical  Geography,  pp.  108,  114;  Appleton's 
Physical  Geography,  pp.  100,  106;  Butler's  Physical  Geog- 
raphy, pp.  96,  105. 

There  is  no  more  delightful  subject  of  study  for 
children  in  the  Primary  and  Grammar  grades  than  ele- 
mentary zoology.  It  should  begin  in  the  very  lowest 
class,  and  be  continued  in  all  the  succeeding  grades.  The 
food,  homes,  habits  and  uses  of  animals  should  he  learned, 
and  the  adaptation  of  their  forms  and  structure  to  their  modes 
of  life.  Gradually  the  simplest  general  classification  should 
be  made.  If  this  very  important  work  be  done,  the  pupils 
of  the  seventh  grade  will  take  great  pleasure  in  learn- 
ing the  distribution  of  animals  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  331 

Preliminary  lessons  should  be  given  in  zoology  in  this 
grade,  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  now  before  us.  Pu- 
pils should  know  the  general  characteristics  of  the  ani- 
mals in  each  division  and  sub-division  here  given,  and 
something  of  their  structure,  forms,  food,  homes,  habits 
and  uses. 

1,  Mollusks.  2,  Radiates.  3,  Articulates.  4,  Ver- 
tebrates. Under  Vertebrates,  fishes,  batrachians,  reptiles, 
birds;  under  reptiles,  saurians,  chelonians,  ophidians; 
under  birds,  birds  of  prey,  perchers,  climbers,  scratchers, 
runners,  swimmers;  under  mammals,  marsupials,  edentata, 
rodents,  pachyderms,  carnivora,  ruminants,  quadrumana 
cetaceans. 

The  migration  of  birds  may  be  a  very  profitable  sub- 
ject for  discussion  and  observation  in  the  spring  and 
autumn.  From  what  lands  come  these  birds?  Why  do 
they  migrate?  These  questions  have  not  yet  been 
answered  by  the  most  scientific  observers. 

Draw  a  large  map  on  the  blackboard,  similar  to  the  one 
drawn  to  illustrate  the  distribution  of  plants.  The  latter 
(map)  should  remain  for  comparison.  Color  the  map  to 
indicate  the  following  regions  of  animal  distribution. 
(See  Maury's  Physical  Geography,  pp.  109,  112):  1.  The 
Northern  Old  World  Region.  2.  The  African  Region.  3. 
The  Indian  Region.  4.  Australian  Region.  5.  North 
American  Region.  6.  South  American  Region.  As  each 
division,  sub-division  or  species  is  studied  and  discussed,  lo- 
cate the  animals  on  the  map,  by  writing  their  names.  When 
a  name  is  written  over  the  locality  of  an  animal, 


332  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

questions  should  be  asked:  Where  does  this  animal 
live?  What  does  it  eat?  What  food  does  it  find  here? 
Does  this  animal  live  on  mountains,  plains,  in  forests, 
prairies,  steppes,  in  marshes, deserts  or  plateaus?  In  what 
temperature  does  it  thrive? 

While  learning  the  distribution  of  animals  their  uses 
should  be  discussed.  This  classificaton  may  be  used. 
Animals  used  for,  1  food,  2  clothing,  3  shelter,  4  draught 
animals  and  beasts  of  burden,  5  scavengers,  and  destroy- 
ers of  harmful  insects  and  worms,  6  animals  used  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  7  useless  animals.  Are  there 
any  useless  animals?  Do  not  put  too  many  names  of 
animals  on  the  map.  When  it  is  properly  finished,  these 
questions  can  be  answered. 

Name  all  the  mollusks  that  you  know  of.  Where 
do  they  live?  The  radiates.  Where  do  they  live?  The 
articulates.  Where  do  they  live?  The  vertebrates. 
Where  do  they  live  ?  Which  division  is  the  most  useful 
to  man?  Name  all  the  fishes,  batrachian  reptiles  that 
you  have  ever  seen.  Which  sub-division  is  the  most  use- 
ful to  man?  Name  all  the  birds  you  have  ever  seen. 
Name  all  the  birds  about  which  you  have  read  or  heard. 
What  family  of  birds  is  the  most  useful  to  man  ?  Name 
all  the  uses  of  birds.  Name  all  the  carnivora  you  have 
ever  seen.  All  you  have  ever  heard  or  read  about.  Why 
are  some  animals  called  carnivora?  What  are  the  uses  of 
carnivora  ?  The  greatest  use  ?  What  rodents  have  you 
seen?  Name  all  the  pachyderms.  What  animal  is  the 
most  useful  of  this  class  ?  Of  the  least  use  ?  Name  all 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  333 

the  ruminants.  What  is  the  food  of  ruminants  ?  Which 
of  the  ruminants  is  the  most  useful  to  man?  Why? 
Name  the  quadrumana.  ,The  cetaceans.  Which  sub- 
division of  the  mammals  is  the  most  useful?  Which  of 
the  least  use?  Which  the  most  harmful?  Name  all  the 
animals  used  for  food.  Which  supplies  the  most  food  to 
man  ?  For  clothing  ?  Which  animal  supplies  the  largest 
quantity  of  materials  of  clothing?  Name  all  the  fur- 
bearing  animals.  Name  all  the  birds  whose  feathers  are 
used  for  clothing  and  for  warmth.  What  bird  furnishes 
the  most  feathers?  Name  the  animals  whose  skins  are 
used  for  leather.  To  what  sub-division  does  each  belong? 
For  what  purposes  are  bones  and  hoofs  used  ?  Name  all 
the  articles  furnished  by  swine? 

Name  all  the  draught  animals  and  beasts  of  burden. 
Which  is  the  most  useful  ?  Which  is  the  most  intelli- 
gent ?  What  draught  animals  are  used  for  food  ?  The 
skins  of  what  animals  are  used  for  shelter?*  Name  all  the 
scavengers  among  animals.  What  animals  destroy  in- 
jurious insects  and  worms  ?  What  birds  should  be  pro- 
tected? Why? 

Name  all  the  articles  manufactured  out  of  the  bodies 
of  animals.  What  animal  has  the  most  uses  ?  Name  all 
the  domestic  animals. 

Name  the  animals  that  live  in  each  one  of  the  six 
regions  and  in  no  other.  What  animals  require  tropical 
heat?  What  extreme  cold?  What  animals  live  in  all 
the  regions?  What  animals  live  on  mountains  and  no 
where  else  ?  Name  the  amphibious  animals.  What  fishes 


334  HOW   To   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

are  most  used  for  food  ?  What  mollusk  ?  Tell  pupils  about 
the  extinct  animals  of  former  geological  periods,  and 
show  fossils.  Show  how  rocks  are  composed  of  shells. 
Discuss  the  dispersion  of  animals  by  natural  and  artificial 
means.  What  wild  animals  are  related  to  the  cat?  To 
the  dog?  To  the  horse?  Name  the  animals  that  live 
in  one  continent  and  nowhere  else?  What  animals  live 
in  forests?  What  on  grassy  plains?  Write  a  list  of  all 
the  animals  you  have  ever  seen. 

Distributions  of  Races  of  Men. — Draw  a  map 
of  the  world  on  the  blackboard;  color  it  to  show  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  three  types  of  the  human  race:  1.  The 
Black  Type;  2.  The  Yellow  Type;  3.  The  White  Type. 
See  Appleton's  Physical  Geography,  p.  113.  Keep  the 
maps  of  vegetation  and  animals  on  the  board  for  compar- 
ison and  reference.  For  subdivisions  of  types  see  pp.  68, 
69,  70.  Lessons  should  be  given  upon  the  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  each  type,  such  as  appearance,  manners,  cus- 
toms, habits,  dwellings,  dress,  etc.  In  what  does  each  type 
differ  from  all  the  others?  What  countries  does  each  type 
inhabit  ?  What  is  the  prevailing  type  in  the  Torrid  zone  ? 
In  the  North  Temperate  zone  ?  South  Temperate  zone  ? 
Frigid  zones?  In  Asia?  Europe?  Africa?  North 
America?  South  America?  Australasia?  Which  type 
occupies  the  most  land?  Which  the  least  land?  Tell  the 
pupils  about  the  great  changes  in  distribution.  Write  upon 
the  map  the  names  of  the  principal  subdivisions  of  types ; 
discussing  each  subdivision  as  you  write.  The  peculiarities 


NOTES  —  SEVENTH  GRADE.  335 

of  each  should  be  taught.  Show  pictures  illustrating  their 
appearance,  manners,  customs,  etc.  A  large  number  of 
pictures  may  be  profitably  used.  What  regions  are  inhab- 
ited by  negroes?  What  mountains?  River  basins? 
What  zones?  How  came  negroes  to  inhabit  a  part  of 
North  America?  In  what  do  negroes  differ  from  the 
other  colored  races?  What  territory  next  to  Africa  in 
extent  does  the  Black  Type  occupy  ?  Which  are  the  more 
intelligent,  negroes  or  Australians  ?  Where  do  the  Bantus 
live?  What  territory  is  occupied  by  the  Mongols?  What 
plateau?  Mountains?  In  what  natural  divisions  do  the 
Ostiakslive?  The  Yakuts?  Eskimos?  Finns?  Lapps? 
Kirgliz?  Funguses?  Chukchis?  Which  subdivision  of 
the  Yellow  Type  occupies  the  most  territory?  Which  is 
the  most  intelligent  ?  Which  lives  in  high  lands  ?  Which 
in  lowlands  ?  What  territories  are  inhabited  by  the  Amer- 
ican Indian  races?  When  did  they  occupy  all  America? 
In  what  natural  divisions  do  the  Athabascans  live?  The 
Caribs?  Aztecs?  Peruvians?  Thrikits?  The  Patago- 
nians?  Fuegians?  Tell  pupils  about  the  civilization  of 
the  mound  builders,  Aztecs  and  Peruvians.  See  Lives  of 
Cortez  and  Pizarro.  Indicate  the  territory  inhabited  by 
the  Hamites.  The  Berbers.  The  Hindoos.  The  Sclavic 
Race.  The  Romanic  Race.  The  Teutonic.  Celtic. 
The  Magyars.  What  races  may  be  called  savages?  What 
half-civilized?  What  are  the  characteristics  of  savages? 
Of  half -civilized  peoples  ?  Of  civilized  men  ?  What  races 
seem  to  be  savages  on  account  of  their  surroundings, 
climate,  structure,  etc.  ?  How  does  a  tropical  climate  affect 


336  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

human  beings  ?  A  frigid  climate  ?  Why  ?  In  what  zone 
do  we  find  the  best  civilization?  Why?  What  are 
Nomads?  What  prevents  Nomads  from  becoming  civil- 
ized ?  What  countries  are  best  adapted  by  their  structure 
for  defense  against  the  incursions  of  savages  and  other 
enemies  ?  China,  India,  Arabia,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Greece, 
Italy,  Spain,  Great  Britain.  Why?  Show  by  the  struc- 
ture of  each  country  how  it  is  adapted  to  promote  civiliza- 
tion. 

Distribution  of  minerals  and  metals. — The  sug- 
gestions to  pupils  in  regard  to  elementary  botany  and  zool- 
ogy, should  be  followed  in  giving  lessons  on  mineralogy  in 
the  primary  and  grammar  grades  throughout  the  course. 
Befora  the  distribution  of  nations  and  the  various  condi- 
tions of  national  life  can  be  comprehensively  studied,  it 
is  necessary  to  know  where  the  mineral  products  are  dis- 
tributed, as  they  have  a  very  important  part  in  civiliza- 
tion. Give  pupils  a  short  course  in  mineralogy.  Study 
the  nature  and  use  of  minerals  and  metals,  how  they  are 
mined  or  quarried  and  the  articles  manufactured  from 
them.  What  metal  is  the  most  used?  Name  the  uses  of 
iron.  What  is  steel?  What  is  the  Bessemer  process  of 
making  steel  ?  What  changes  has  this  discovery  brought 
about?  Draw  a  map,  upon  which  mark  the  distribution 
of  minerals  and  metals.  When  a  mineral  or  metal  is 
studied  write  its  name  on  the  map  over  the  different  local- 
ities where  it  is  found.  In  what  kind  of  natural  divisions 
is  iron  found?  Is  it  ever  found  in  lowlands?  How  do 


NOTES — SEVENTH  GRADE.  337 

you  account  for  the  fact  that  iron  is  generally  found  in 
highlands  ?  In  what  highlands  is  it  found  in  the  great- 
est abundance  ?  What  metal  is  most  used  next  to  iron  ? 
What  articles  are  made  of  copper?  What  is  brass?  In 
what  regions  is  copper  found?  What  mines  furnish  the 
most  copper?  What  are  the  uses  of  lead?  For  what 
purpose  is  it  most  used  ?  In  what  regions  is  it  found  ? 
Name  the  articles  made  of  tin.  Where  is  tin  found? 
What  are  the  uses  of  platinum,  mercury,  zinc,  nickel? 
Where  are  these  metals  found?  Name  the  precious 
metals.  Where  is  gold  found?  In  what  is  it  found? 
Tell  pupils  of  the  various  ways  of  mining  gold.  Also  re- 
late how  gold  was  discovered  in  California  and  Australia. 
Where  is  silver  found?  In  what  mountains?  What  are 
the  uses  of  gold  and  silver?  Name  the  mountains  that 
furnish  the  largest  amount  of  metals.  What  regions  have 
a  very  small  quantity  of  metals  or  none  at  all?  What 
kinds  of  minerals  are  used  in  building?  What  kinds  of 
stone  are  used  the  most  in  construction?  Name  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  limestone.  For  what  purpose  is  slate- 
stone  used?  What  is  the  different  between  granite  and 
limestone?  What  is  marble?  For  what  purposes  is  it 
used.  What  is  clay  ?  What  articles  are  made  of  clay  ? 
What  is  chalk?  Where  is  chalk  found?  For  what  is 
chalk  used?  Name  the  precious  stones.  What  is  a  dia- 
mond? Where  are  pearls  found?  What  are  pearls? 
What  is  coal  ?  How  was  it  made  ?  What  is  the  difference 
in  formation  between  soft  and  hard  coal?  Show  specimens 
of  coal  containing  fossils.  Locate  the  great  coal  beds  in  the 


338  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

world.  Why  is  it  advantageous  to  find  coal  and  iron  in 
the  same  locality?  What  is  petroleum?  Natural  gas? 
Where  are  they  found  ?  For  what  purposes  are  they  used  ? 
What  is  peat?  Rock  salt?  Where  are  they  found?  Why 
is  the  water  of  the  ocean  salt?  What  are  the  other 
names  for  graphite  ?  What  articles  are  made  of  graphite  ? 
Review  the  distribution  of  minerals  and  metals.  Write  a 
list  of  all  the  uses  of  minerals  and  metals  to  man.  What 
regions  have  the  greatest  advantages  in  the  way  of  miner- 
als and  metals?  Locate  minerals  and  metals  in  America; 
Asia;  Europe;  Africa;  Australia. 

Review  all  the  products  of  the  earth,  vegetable,  animal 
and  mineral. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Distribution  of  nations. — A  series  of  lessons  should 
be  given  upon  civilization,  the  development  of  civilization, 
and  upon  nations,  national  life  and  growth,  and  the  forms 
of  government  of  the  different  nations.  These  lessons 
should  lay  the  foundation  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
governments,  politics,  and  political  economy.  Pupils 
have  in  the  seventh  grade  studied  outlines  of  the 
histories  of  India,  Arabia,  China,  Chaldea,  Egypt, 
Palestine,  Greece,  Italy,  Spain  and  Great  Britain  as 
a  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  the  history  of  the  United  States.  These 
lessons  form  a  good  foundation  for  a  study  of  the  forms  of 
government.  It  may  be  well  to  take  up  the  study  of  gov- 
ernments in  the  order  of  their  growth  and  development 
from  the  first  tribal  or  patriarchal  form.  One  fact  should 


NOTES  —  EIGHTH    GRADE.  339 

be  taught  with  great  clearness;  that  any  particular  form 
of  government  depends  ideally  upon  the  intelligence  and 
character  of  the  people  governed.  Ideal  government  is  an 
adaptation  to  the  condition  of  the  governed.  Why  should 
children  be  governed  by  their  parents  until  they  become 
af  age?  What  are  the  essential  conditions  of  self-govern- 
ment? Can  all  nations  govern  themselves?  Why?  Why 
not?  Describe  the  government  of  tribes,  absolute  mon- 
archies, limited  or  constitutional  monarchies  and  republics. 
Give  lessons  upon  the  three  departments  of  government, 
legislative,  judicial  and  executive.  In  what  forms  of  gov- 
ernment are  all  three  deparments  vested  in  one  power? 

SUBJECTS  FOR  LESSONS. 

FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT,  NAMES  OF  NATIONS — 

1.  Family,  6.  Democracy, 

2.  Tribe,  7.  Federation, 

3.  Absolute  Monarchy,       8.  Confederation, 

4.  Limited  Monarchy,         9.  Empire, 

5.  Republic,  10.  Kingdom. 

POLITCAL   DIVISIONS  AND  TERRITORIES  IN  A  NATION— 

1.  Province,  7.  Shiretown, 

2.  Colony,  8.  Town  and  Township, 

3.  Territory,  9.  Capital, 

4.  District,  School,Cong-  10.  City, 

ressional, 

5.  County,  11.  Village, 

6.  Burrough,  12.  Parish. 
DEPARTMENTS  OF  GOVERNMENT — 

1.  Legislative,  3.  Executive. 

2.  Judiciary, 


34°  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

LAWS  AND  LAW  MAKING — 

•  1.  Constitution, 

(Limited, 
Universal, 
Majority, 
Plurality, 

Cumlative  Voting. 

3.  Courts,  11.  Landtag, 

4.  Judges,  12.  Reichstag, 

5.  Juries,  13.  Elections, 

6.  Common  Law,  14.  Town  Meeting, 

7.  Statutes,  15.  Caucus, 

8.  Legislatures,  16.  Convention, 

9.  Parliament,  17.  Prisons, 

10.  Congress-House,  18.  Banishment,  Exile, 

Senate,  19.  Capital  Punishment. 

REVENUE— 

.,    T    •«,   j  High, 

•'  (  Low.   For  Protection,  for  Revenue  only. 

2.  Free  Trade,  4.  Internal  Revenue, 

3.  Taxes,  5.  Customs. 

MEANS  OF  DEFENSE — 

1.  Standing  Armies,  7.  Artillery, 

2.  Militia,  8.  Engineers, 

3.  Volunteers,  9.  Navy, 

4.  Regulars,  10.  Police, 

5.  Infantry,  11.  Sheriff, 

6.  Cavalry,  12.  Mayor. 


NOTES — EIGHTH    GRADE. 


341 


RULERS,  OFFICERS  AND  TITLES — 
1.  Emperor,  11.  Lord, 


2.  King, 

3.  Kaiser, 

4.  Czar, 

5.  Chief,  Patriarch, 

6.  President, 

7.  Cabinet, 

8.  Embassador, 

9.  Consul, 
10.  Duke, 

PARTIES  AND  CLASSES — 

1.  Aristocracy, 

2.  Autocrat, 

3.  Tyrant, 

4.  Classes, 

5.  Caste 

6.  Democrat, 

7.  Whig, 

8.  Republican, 

9.  Tory, 
10.  Liberal, 

EDUCATION — 

1.  Schools, 

2.  Universities, 

3.  Colleges, 


12.  Viscount, 

13.  Marquis, 

14.  Count, 

15.  Baron, 

16.  Senator, 

17.  Member  of  Congress, 

18.  Judge, 

19.  Knight, 

20.  Squire. 


11.  Home  Ruler, 

12.  Prohibitionist, 

13.  Free  Trader, 

14.  Mugwump, 

15.  Free  Soiler, 

16.  Abolitionist, 

17.  Socialist, 

18.  Nihilist, 

19.  Anarchist. 


4.  Common  Schools, 

5.  Private  Schools. 


342  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

RELIGIONS — 

1.  Christian,  4.  Brahmin, 

2.  Mohommeden,  5.  Fetish, 

3.  Buddhist,  6.  Totem. 

GENERAL   TOPICS— 

1.  Civilization,  7.  Serfdom, 

2.  Dark  Ages,  8.  Nomads, 

3.  Rome,  9.  Emigration, 

4.  Greece,  10.  Immigration, 

5.  Feudal  System,  11.  Secession, 

6.  Slavery,  12.  Capital  and  Labor. 

Questions.  What  is  a  nation  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  race  and  a  nation  ?  How  many  kinds  of  govern- 
ment are  there  ?  What  kind  of  government  requires  the 
greatest  intelligence  and  character  in  its  people?  Why? 
What  requires  the  least  intelligence?  Why? 

Name  the  departments  of  Government?  In  what 
form  of  government  does  the  ruler  exercise  the  functions 
of  all  departments?  Which  is  the  most  important  de- 
partment? Why?  What  is  a  constitution?  What  leg- 
islators are  not  elected  in  a  limited  monarchy?  What  is 
the  difference  between  a  republic  and  a  democracy?  A 
federation  and  a  confederation?  How  are  chiefs  of  tribes 
selected?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  English 
Parliament  and  our  Congress?  What  is  a  congressional 
district?  How  many  inhabitants  must  there  be  to  form  a 
congressional  district  ?  How  are  towns  governed  ?  Cities  ? 
What  is  the  right  of  suffrage  ?  How  is  this  right  limited  ? 


NOTES  —  EIGHTH    GRADE.  343 

At  what  age  can  a  man  vote  in  the  United  States?  Should 
women  vote  ?  Why  ?  Why  not  ?  What  are  equal  rights  ? 
What  should  be  the  qualifications  of  a  voter?  What  is  a 
caucus?  How  are  laws  made?  What  is  the  use  of  laws? 
What  is  a  jury?  What  is  capital  punishment?  Is  it 
right?  What  are  taxes?  What  is  tariff?  Internal  rev- 
enue ?  What  is  free  trade  ?  Which  is  better  for  a  nation 
free  trade  or  high  tariff?  Why?  What  officers  in  this 
country  are  elected?  What  appointed?  Is  it  right  for  a 
nation  to  keep  a  standing  army?  Why?  Why  not? 
Name  the  officers  in  our  regular  army  and  give  their  rela- 
tive positions.  Should  there  be  any  classes  or  castes  in  a 
nation?  Why?  Why  not?  Why  should  all  the  people 
of  a  nation  pay  for  common  schools  ?  What  does  "  each 
for  all,  and  all  for  each"  mean?  What  is  a  citizen? 
Why  should  people  who  do  not  vote  pay  taxes  ?  What  is 
toleration  in  religion?  In  what  should  all  persons  be 
equal?  What  is  monopoly?  How  much  poverty  would 
there  be  if  the  Golden  Rule  were  strictly  obeyed  ?  What  is 
the  very  best  gift  that  a  nation  can  make  to  every  child  ? 
Why  is  true  education  better  than  riches,  fame  or  an  in- 
herited title? 

Civil  Government. — A  course  of  well  prepared  les- 
sons in  civil  government  should  here  be  given.  Pupils 
ought  to  be  brought,  face  to  face,  with  their  political 
rights,  and  duties ;  there  indeed  is  no  more  important  work 
of  the  common  school  than  the  study  of  the  citizen's  re- 
lations to  his  country.  The  course  should  begin  with  the 


344  HOW   TO   STUDY    GEOGRAPHY. 

government  of  the  town  or  city  in  which  the  pupils  live; 
follow  this  with  the  government  of  the  county,  then  the 
state  and  the  nation.  Questions  like  the  following  indi- 
cate the  general  direction  of  the  course.  Of  what  does 
the  government  consist?  What  officers  are  elected?  How 
are  they  elected  ?  What  officers  are  appointed  ?  What 
are  the  duties  of  each  officer?  What  kind  of  citizens 
should  be  selected  for  office  ?  What  are  the  duties  of  a 
legislator?  How  are  laws  made?  What  is  an  executive 
officer?  A  judicial  officer?  What  is  a  constitution? 
What  laws  can  a  town  or  city  make  ?  A  state  ?  The  na- 
tion? What  is  centralization ?  State  rights?  Compare 
the  government  of  the  United  States  with  other  govern- 
ments. What  is  bribery?  What  effect  has  bribery  upon 
a  nation  ?  How  can  the  government  be  kept  pure  ?  Why 
should  every  citizen  vote?  Study  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

Political  divisions. — If  the  plan  here  given  has 
been  followed,  and  the  work  done,  pupils  are  ready  to  take 
a  comprehensive  view  of  all  political  divisions.  The 
maps  on  the  board  of  the  distribution  of  plants,  ani- 
mals, races,  and  minerals,  together  with  the  relief  globes 
the  pupils  have  molded — may  be  used  for  the  boundaries 
of  political  divisions.  Red  crayon  should  be  used  to  mark 
the  boundary  lines,  thus  conforming  to  most  printed  maps. 
The  plan  of  classification  has  been  discussed  in  uThe 

Preparation  for  Teachers. "(See  pp. .)     With  pupils  of 

this  grade  the  best  plan  is  to  begin  with  the  tribes,  and 


NOTES — EIGHTH    GRADE.  345 

follow  with  absolute  monarchies,  limited  monarchies  and 
republics.  The  boundaries  of  territories  inhabited  by 
peoples  under  purely  tribal  forms  of  government  can 
only  be  very  indefinitely  indicated.  Most '  maps  have 
boundary  lines  to  limit  territories  in  savage  Africa: — it  is 
quite  safe  to  say  that  not  one  mile  of  political  boundary 
except  the  sea-coast,  is  accurately  known  of  Africa,  even 
supposing  such  boundaries  to  really  exist.  The  latest 
boundaries  may  be  used  with  this  very  marked  qualifica- 
tion, somewhere  near  this  line. 

Descriptions  of  political  divisions. — As  each 
political  division  is  marked  off  on  the  map — the  country 
bounded  should  be  described  by  pupils.  The  power  to  de- 
scribe accurately,  using  all  the  knowledge  previously  ac- 
quired, is  an  excellent  test  of  what  pupils  have  learned. 

Maps  of  all  the  continents  are  on  the  board,  the  teacher 
with  red  crayon  marks  off  a  political  division  and  re- 
quires pupils  to  write  a  description  of  the  division.  They 
already  know  the  structure,  climate,  vegetation,  animals, 
races,  and  minerals  of  the  whole  continent,  therefore  they 
can  describe  each  political  division. 

The  description  of  political  divisions  can  be  made  an 
exceedingly  valuable  exercise  in  thought,  logical  arrange- 
ment, writing,  and  language.  The  order  of  description  is 
from  the  general  to  the  particular,  and  pupils  should  be 
held  to  the  order. 

Schedule  of  plan  of  description. — 

POSITION — 

In  relation  to  continent. 


346  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

On  what  slope? 

In  relation  to  ocean, 

In  what  zone? 


STRUCTURE — 


DRAINAGE — 


OUTLINE — 


CLIMATE — 


Primary  highlands  (if  any), 

Secondary  highlands. 

Plateaus, 

Principal  mountain  peaks, 

Plains. 

River  basins, 

Lakes  and  inland  waters, 

Rivers. 

Natural   boundaries — (Coast   lines   and 

mountain  ranges,) 
Peninsulas, 
Islands. 

Position  in  zone, 
Height  affecting  temperature, 
Winds  affecting  temperature, 
Rainfall, 

Winds  that  bring  moisture, 
Causes  of  lack  of  moisture  (if  any), 
Average  temperature  in  winter, 
Average  temperature  in  summer, 
Tropical,  sub- tropical,  warm,  temperate, 
cold,  temperate  or  frigid. 


NOTES  —  EIGHTH    GRADE.  347 

VEGETATION — 

Soil, 

Causes  of  condition  of  soil, 

Very  fertile,  fertile,  arable,  cultivatable, 

or  barren. 

Principal  products     (see  classification), 
Forests, 
Grassy  plains, 
Principal  exports, 
Animals. 

MINERALS — 

Locate  mines, 
Extent  of  mines, 
Principal  products, 
Minerals  exported. 

RACES  OF  MEN— 

Locate, 

The  ruling  race. 

GENERAL — 

Advantages  for  the  homes  of  men, 

Disadvantages, 

Scenery, 

Present  state  of  civilization, 

Probable  future. 

This  schedule  should  be  written  on  the  board  for  pu- 
pils to  follow  in  writing  their  descriptions.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  written  papers  will  show  the  teacher  how 
faithfully  the  work  of  the  seven  proceeding  grades  has 


348  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

been  done.  Important  features  and  details  of  structure, 
climate,  etc.,  not  in  the  general  work  (continent  as  a 
whole)  should  be  taught  as  each  political  division  is 
taught.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  history  and  development  of 
each  nation  as  it  is  taught  should  be  related  or  read. 
Teach  the  provinces,  colonies,  and  dependencies  with  the 
nation  controlling  the  same,  as  India,  Canada,  etc.,  with 
Great  Britain. 

The  present  population  and  area  in  sq.  miles  of  each 
political  division  should  be  written  on  the  map  over  the 
locality  for  reference  and  comparison. 

Questions.  Write  the  names  and  locate  all  the  political 
divisions  in  the  world.  Name  and  locate  the  countries  in 
which  the  tribal  form  of  government  prevails.  .What 
races  inhabit  these  countries?  Name  and  locate  the 
absolute  monarchies?  What  races  inhabit  these  political 
divisions  ?  Name  and  locate  the  limited  monarchies.  The 
Republics.  What  is  the  area  in  square  miles  of  all  the 
countries  under  the  tribal  form  of  government? 

Pupils  can  copy  areas  from  the  board.  Areas  of  all 
the  limited  monarchies  taken  together.  Republics.  Un- 
der which  form  of  government  is  the  largest  area  of  land  ? 
The  smallest?  Under  which  form  is  the  greatest  number 
of  people?  The  least  number?  What  nation  has  the 
largest  area  of  land?  The  next  in  area?  The  next? 
The  smallest?  What  nation  has  the  greatest  number  of 
inhabitants?  The  next  in  number?  The  next?  The 
least  number?  What  nation  is  made  up  of  the  most 
races?  The  fewest?  In  what  nation  does  the  black  type 


NOTES — EIGHTH    GRADE.  349 

prevail?  The  white?  The  yellow?  In  what  political 
division  does  the  Latin  race  live?  The  Teutonic?  The 
Celtic? 

Locate  and  bound  the  Russian  Empire.  The  British 
Empire.  What  fraction  of  the  earth's  surface  do  these 
two  empires  occupy?  Which  has  the  larger  area?  The 
greater  population  ?  Name  four  political  divisions  next  in 
order  of  size,  (area)  smaller  than  the  British  Empire. 
Name  five  of  the  greatest  nations  in  order  of  the  number 
of  inhabitants  in  each.  What  political  divisions  are 
wholly  upon  highlands?  What  nearly  upon  highlands? 
What  political  divisions  contain  the  largest  plains  ?  What 
political  divisions  are  upon  Atlantic  slopes?  Pacific 
slopes?  Arctic  slopes?  What  political  divisions  slope 
towards  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans?  What  towards 
the  Indian  ocean?  What  political  divisions  are  upon  pen- 
insulas ?  Islands  ?  What  political  divisions  have  no  sea- 
coast?  What  political  divisions  have  the  longest  coast- 
line in  proportion  to  their  areas?  What  the  shortest? 
What  political  divisions  have  the  greatest  number  of  good 
harbors?  What  nation  has  the  largest  area  of  land  in 
one  mass?  What  nation  has  provinces  in  all  the  conti- 
nents ?  What  nation  has  the  most  islands  ?  What  polit- 
ical division  has  the  largest  river  basin?  What  the 
greatest  number  of  large  rivers?  What  the  best  advan- 
tages for  river  navigation  ?  What  have  no  large  rivers  ? 
What  nations  have  the  best  natural  means  of  defense 
against  enemies  ?  What  the  poorest  ? 

What  political  divisions  have  the  best  advantages  for 


350  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

commerce?  The  poorest?  What  political  divisions  have 
the  most  land  in  the  Torrid  zone?  In  the  North  Temper- 
ate zone?  South  Temperate  zone?  Frigid  zones?  The 
temperature  of  what  political  divisions  are  affected  by 
highlands?  What  divisions  are  warmed  by  ocean 
currents?  Cooled  by  ocean  currents?  What  divisions 
are  colder  than  other  countries  in  the  same  latitudes, 
on  account  of  the  distance  from  the  ocean?  Ovei 
what  political  divisions  does  40°  north  latitude  pass? 
Which  division  has  the  highest  average  temperature? 
Why?  Ask  the  same  questions  of  50°  north  latitude 
Over  what  political  divisions  does  the  equator  pass  ?  Tht* 
Tropic  of  Cancer?  Capricorn?  Arctic  Circle?  What 
political  division  has  the  greatest  average  rainfall  ?  What 
the  least?  What  divisions  receive  their  moisture  from 
the  monsoons?  The  return  trades?  What  divisions  have 
tropical  rains? 

What  political  divisions  are  partially  barren  on  account 
of  lack  of  heat?  What  are  barren  on  account  of  lack  of 
moisture?  What  divisions  have  the  most  fertile  land  in 
proportion  to  area?  What  the  least?  What  political 
divisions  have  no  barren  land?  What  have  the  largest 
area  of  barren  land  in  proportion  to  the  entire  area?  In 
what  political  division  is  the  most  rice  raised?  Wheat? 
Corn?  Tobacco?  Cotton?  Potatoes?  Rye,  oats  and 
barley?  In  what  is  the  most  lumber?  Iron?  Copper? 
Silver?  Gold?  Coal?  Lead?  In  what  divisions  are  the 
most  grapes  raised?  Cocoa-nuts?  Tropical  fruits? 
Dates?  In  what  divisions  are  there  the  most  cattle? 


NOTES  —  EIGHTH    GRADE.  351 

Hogs?  Horses?  Elephants?  Camels?  Wild  animals? 
What  divisions  have  the  best  advantages  for  fishing? 
What  divisions  have  the  best  advantage  for  agriculture? 
Grazing?  Mining?  Have  pupils  write  the  names  of  five 
political  divisions  which  have  the  best  advantages  in  every 
direction,  structure,  climate,  soil,  vegetation,  animals,  an,d 
^ive  reasons.  Have  pupils  find  the  average  number  of 
people  to  a  square  mile  in  each  division.  What  division 
is  capable  of  supporting  the  greatest  number  of  people  to 
a  square  mile?  The  least  number? 

Occupations  of  Men. — The  study  of  man  at  work 
should  have  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  school-room. 
The  conditions,  advantages,  disadvantages  and  necessities 
of  labor  may  be  inferred  from  all  previous  lessons,  up  to  a 
certain  point  in  the  development  of  the  human  race,  struc- 
ture, climate  and  other  essentials  of  environment,  "  control 
the  growing  life  of  man,'1  then  comes  development 
through  the  mastery  of  adverse  circumstances  by  work, 
work  directed  by  thought.  "Thou  hast  put  all  things 
under  his  feet."  The  history  of  labor  is  the  history  of 
man;  it  can  he  traced  from  the  rough,  gnarled  limb  of  a 
tree,  used  to  cultivate  the  soil,  up  to  the  steam-plow;  from 
the  rude  sickle  to  the  reaper  that  cuts  and  binds;  -from 
the  goose  quill  to  the  magnificent  printing  press.  Closely 
allied  to  manual  training  as  an  essential  to  education,  is 
the  deep  interest  that  should  be  aroused  in  the  minds  of 
all  children  in  the  hand-work  and  brain- work  which  rolls 
the  car  of  progress  onward.  A  growing  appreciation  of 


352  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

the  great  dignity  and  worth  of  labor  to  mankind  should 
be  developed  in  all  children. 

Outline  of  lessons  upon  occupations.— 

AGRICULTURE — 

Farms, 

Plantations, 

Modes  of  cultivating  the  staple  crops : 
Wheat,  Rice,  Corn,  Coffee,  Tea, 
Grapes,  Cotton,  etc., 

Farming  Utensils  and  Machinery, 

Modes  of  converting  raw  materials  to 
Food,  Clothing,  etc., 

Fertilizers, 

Agriculture  in  the  Tropics, 

Agriculture  in  the  Temperate  zones. 

GRAZING  AND  THE  RAISING  OF  ANIMALS — 

Cattle,       ^ 

Sheep, 

Hogs, 

Camels,      1-     How  raised? 

Horses, 

Ostriches, 

Fowls, 

Cattle  Ranches, 

Nomads, 

Pastures. 

FISHERIES— 

Kinds  of  Fish  used  for  food. 


NOTES  —  EIGHTH    GRADE.  353 

How   caught   and   prepared  for    the 

market, 
Whale  Fisheries. 

MANUFACTURES — 

Articles  manufactured  for 

Food, 

Clothing, 

Shelter, 

Household  Utensils, 

Furniture, 

Uses  in  Transportation, 

Luxury, 

Medicine, 

Factories, 

Flour  Mills, 

Machine  Shops, 

Rolling  Mills, 

Water-Power,  Steam, 

Wooden  Ware, 

Paper, 

Cotton  Goods, 

Woolens,  etc., 

Printing, 

Gas, 

Oils, 

Electricity, 

Paints. 

Pupils   should  visit  all  the  principal   manufactories 


354 


HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 


near  the  school,  observe  the  machinery  and  processes  of 
manufacture  and  write  detailed  descriptions. 


LUMBERING — 


COMMERCE — 


How  Forests  are  cultivated, 

Processes  of  cutting  and  logging, 

Rafting, 

Saw  Mills, 

Principal  kinds  of  woods,  used  in, 

Building, 

In  making  Furniture, 

Ships, 

Railroads. 


Ships,  how  made  and  launched, 

Steamboats, 

Great  Ocean  Routes,  (See  map  Barnes 

Complete   Geography,    pp.    132, 

133,) 
Advantages  taken  of  winds  and  Ocean 

currents, 
Harbors, 

Railroads,  how  made? 
The  Iron  Horse, 
Cars, 
Freight, 
Tunnels, 
Air-brake, 
Railroad  Accidents.     How  caused? 


BUSINESS — 


ART — 


PROFESSIONS — 


NOTES— EIGHTH    GRADE. 

Canals,  Canal  Locks, 

Stage  Coach, 

Caravan, 

Flat-boats, 

Canoes, 

Dog-sleds. 

Banks, 

Mints, 

Corporations, 

Boards  of  Trade, 

Chambers  of  Commerce, 

Exchange, 

Bank-notes, 

Coin, 

Bank-checks, 

Drafts, 

Merchandise. 

Sculpture, 
Painting, 
Architecture, 
Engraving. 


355 


Theology, 

Law, 

Medicine, 

Teaching, 

Engineering. 


356  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

Questions — What  is  commerce  ?  Why  is  commerce  a  ne- 
cessity? Define  imports.  Exports.  What  are  surplus  prod- 
ucts? What  does  a  country  export?  Import?  What  are  the 
great  ocean  routes  of  commerce?  How  has  the  Suez 
Canal  changed  routes  of  commerce?  What  changes  will 
the  Panama  Canal  bring  about  ?  What  nations  employ 
the  most  men  in  proportion  to  number  of  peoples  in  com- 
merce ?  Why  ?  What  nations  have  the  least  advantages 
for  commerce  ?  Where  are  the  great  manufacturing  cen- 
ters of  the  world?  Give  reasons  why?  What  nations 
have  the  least  advantages  for  manufacturing?  State  all 
the  conditions  for  a  manufacturing  center.  What  political 
divisions  have  the  greatest  number  of  people  in  proportion 
to  population,  employed  in  agriculture?  What  regions 
are  devoted,  almost  entirely,  to  raising  cattle? 

What  is  a  city?  What  is  the  difference  between  a 
city  and  a  village  ?  A  city  and  a  town  ?  Describe  how 
cities  are  founded,  and  how  they  grow?  What  conditions 
are  necessary  for  the  founding  and  growth  of  cities? 
What  is  a  commercial  city?  What  constitutes  a  good 
harbor?  What  other  conditions  with  a  good  harbor  does 
a  commercial  city  need?  How  does  commerce  depend 
upon  agriculture?  Upon  manufacturing?  Upon  rail- 
roads? How  has  the  building  of  railroads  changed  the 
commerce  of  the  world  ?  Name  and  locate  twenty  of  the 
largest  sea-ports  in  the  world.  The  cities  should  be  lo- 
cated on  the  map,  and  the  population  given  in  figures 
written  on  the  maps.  Name  and  locate  ten  of  the  largest 
inland  commercial  cities.  Name  and  locate  fifteen  of  the 


NOTES — EIGHTH    GRADE.  357 

largest  manufacturing  cities.  Name  and  locate  ten  cities 
which  owe  their  greatness  to  neither  commerce  nor  manu- 
facturing. In  locating  cities  use  the  physical  wall  maps. 

Questions    upon  cities  as  they  are  located.— 

Commercial  Cities.  What  are  the  exports?  To  what 
ports  are  they  carried  ?  What  are  the  imports  ?  From 
what  ports  do  they  come?  Describe  the  harbor.  What 
are  the  railroad  facilities  of  this  port?  From  what  regions 
is  freight  brought  overland  to  ship  at  this  port?  What 
are  the  principal  manufactures?  Pictures  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  should  be  shown  and  things  of  interest  related. 
What  advantages  for  growth  and  prosperity  has  this  city  ? 

Manufacturing  Cities.  Describe  the  location  and 
surroundings  of  the  city.  What  are  its  principal  manu- 
factures ?  Give  the  advantages  it  has  for  its  manufactures. 
Where  are  its  manufactured  articles  used?  Where  the 
great  manufactories  of  iron  and  steel  products?  Cotton 
goods?  Woolen  goods?  Cutlery?  Agricultural  imple- 
ments? Name  a  city  that  is  great  without  any  natural 
advantages.  What  cities  have  been  made  great  by  rail- 
roads? What  causes  can  you  give  for  the  greatness  of 
cities  that  have  neither  commerce,  nor  manufacturies  to 
any  considerable  extent?  Name  and  locate  five  cities 
made  famous  by  universities  and  other  institutions  of 
learning. 

General.  A  ship  is  loaded  with  wheat,  from  what 
ports  may  it  come?  Cotton?  Hides?  Mahogany  and 
Rosewood?  Tea?  Coffee?  Furs?  Meat?  Rails  for 


358  HOW   TO   STUDY   GEOGRAPHY. 

railroads  ?  Copper  ?  A  ship  is  registered  from  Canton, 
what  is  its  lading?  Buenos  Ayres?  Bahia?  Rio 
Janeiro?  New  York?  New  Orleans?  San  Francisco? 
Halifax?  Liverpool?  Havana?  Georgetown,  (Guiana)? 
Santiago?  Marseilles?  Bordeaux?  Hamburg?  Con- 
stantinople? Melbourne?  Calcutta?  Tokio?  Coomas- 
sie?  Tunis?  Batavia?  Sitka? 

From  what  ports  come  Rice?  Wheat?  Corn? 
Meat?  Copper?  Coal?  Marble?  Coffee?  Tea?  Jute? 
Cocoa?  Sugar?  Fish?  Spices?  Oranges?  Wine?  Tobacco? 
Ivory?  Furs?  Where  are  ships  made?  Railroad  cars? 
To  what  countries  do  emigrants  go?  Why?  From  what 
countries  do  they  come  ?  Why  ?  Name  all  the  regions  of 
sparse  population,  that  can  be  made  good  farming  land. 
What  have  railroads  and  steamships  done  to  help  man- 
kind? In  what  way  does  material  wealth  civilize  man- 
kind? 


BOOKS  AND  MAPS 


Explanation:    **  Excellent;  »Good;  p,  Pupils;  t,  Teachers. 


MAPS  AND  ATLASES — 

Stanford's  Physical  Wall  Maps.  The  best  for  structural  geog- 
raphy, London. 

Guyot's  Physical  Wall  Maps.  **  Ivison,  Blakeman&  Taylor. 

Johnston's  Physical  Wall  Maps.    Cheap  and  good. 

Stieler's  Hand- Atlas.** 

Schedler's  Relief  Map  of  United  States. 

Relief  Maps  of  the  Continents.  **  E.  H.  King,  River  Falls, 
Wis. 

Berghaus'  Physicalischer  Atlas.  The  best  in  the  world. 
Gotha. 

Cook  County  Normal  School  Relief  Maps.  Englewood,  111. 
Maps  of  the  Continents,  in  plaster  and  putty. 

Very  fine  Relief  Map  of  United  States,  in  plaster,  with  frame. 

THEORY — 

Life  of  Ritter,**  Gage. 

Comparative  Geography,  **  Ritter.  Van  Antwerp  &  Bragg. 

Geographical  Studies,  Ritter. 

Earth  and  Man,  **  Guyot.    Scribner. 

These  four  books  present  the  general  plan  of  what  may  be 
called  the  scientific  geography. 

Teaching  of  Geography,  *  Geike.    Macmillan. 

Guyot's  Common  School  Geography,  Teachers  Edition.** 

Der  Geographische  Unterricht,*  Oberlander.  Follows  the 
theory  of  Ritter. 

Der  Method  de  des  Geographische  Unterricht,  Bottcher. 
Berlin. 

Geographie  als  Wissenschaft  u.  in  der  Schule,  Dronke.  Bohn. 

Zur  Methodik  d.  Geograph.  Unterricht,  Gelhcrn.    Leipzig. 

Methodik  d.  Geograph.  Unterrichts,  Matzat.  Berlin.  Op- 
posed to  Ritter's  plan.  Very  systematic  and  full  of 
suggestions  for  field  lessons  and  primary  math.  geog. 

Methodik  d.  Geograph.  Unterricht,  Rusch. 

Methodik  d.  Geographic  Unterricht,  Schwarz. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  Crocker.  Many  good  sugges- 
tions. 


360  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Methodische  Ansickten  Tiber  den  Stoff,  die  Behandlungs — 

weise  der  Geographic,  A.  V.  Roon. 
Der  Unterricht  in  der  Geographic,  Bormann. 
Ueber  die  Geographic  als  Lehrgegenstand    in    den    Schu- 

len,  Shacht. 

Die  Methodik  der  Erdkunde,  Ludde.    Magdeburg. 
Geschichte  der  Methodologie  der  Erdkunde,  Ludde.  Leipzig. 
Methodik  des  Geographischer  Unterrichts,*  Winkler.  Dresden. 
Grundzuge  der  Erdbeschreibung  mit  besonderen  Rucksicht 

auf  Natur=  und  Volkerleben,  **  Bormann.    Leipzig. 
Leitfaden  fur  dem  Unterrichte  in  der  Vergleichenden  Erd- 

besehreibung,  Putz.    Freiburg. 
Geography  with  Sand  Modeling.    A.  E.  Frye. 

COMPREHENSIVE  STUDY — 

The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  **  Reclus.  12  vols.  Appleton. 
The  most  exhaustive  work  upon  the  whole  subject  pub- 
lished in  English. 

Stanford's  Compendiums  of  Geography  and  Travel.  6  vols. 
One  for  each  continent.  **  Stanford.  London.  A  very 
valuable  work  for  teachers. 

Articles  in  the  Encyclopedia  Bri  ttanica.  **  While  most  encyclo- 
pedias like  Appleton 's  and  others  contain  much  that  is 
instructive  upon  geography,  the  Brittanica  is  a  genu- 
ine mine  of  geographical  knowledge. 

Harper's  Magazine.  **  Bound  volumes,  with  Index.  For  read- 
ing and  study  in  the  7th  and  8th  grades,  there  is  no 
better  Cyclopedia  than  the  bound  volumes  of  this  maga- 
zine. The  Index  enables  pupils  to  find  good  reading 
upon  very  many  subjects. 

The  Century,  bound  volumes.  A  fine  acquisition  for  a  school 
library. 

Brown's  Countries  of  the  World.  *  C  vols.  Good  reading  for 
the  Gth,  7th,  and  8th  grades. 

Brown's  Peoples  of  the  World.  *      6  vols.     For  eighth  grade. 

Geography — Physical,  Historical  and  Descriptive,**  Keith, 
Johnston,  Stanford. 

Bird's  Eye  View  of  the  World,  **  O.  Reclus.    Ticknor  &  Co. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — 

Physiography,  **  Huxley.  Appleton.  Excellent  in  method 
and  matter. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  361 

Elementary  Phys.  Geography,  Geike.  To  be  read  after  con- 
siderable investigation  and  observation;  field  lessons. 

Phys.  Geography — Elementary  lessons  in:  questions  on,  ** 
Geike.  Macmillan.  , 

Water — Forms  of  Water,  Tissandier.    Scribner. 

The  Earth,  **  Reclus.  Harper. 

Physical  Geography,  Somerville. 

Parallelismus  der  Flussysteme  Europas,  Asiens,  Afrikas  und 
Amerikas,  Bronner. 

Six  Lectures  on  Phys.  Geography,  Houghton.    Longmans. 

Geographisches  IJesebuch,  Masius.  Halle.  Collection  of  ex- 
cellent extracts  from  various  authors. 

Nene  Problems  der  Vergleichender  Erdkunde,  Peschel.  Leip- 
zig. Very  good  for  structure. 

Schriften  zur  Allgerneinen    Erdkunde,  Kriegk.    Leipzig. 

Relations  of  Climate  and  Structure  to  Civilization. 

Phys.  Geog.  Earth  as  Modified  by  Human  Action,  Marsh. 

The  Atmosphere,  Flammarion. 

Die  Erde  als  Weltkorper  ihre  Atmosphare  u.  Hydrosphare, 
Hann.  Leipzig. 

Appleton's  Physical  Geography.  **  For  the  best  outcome  of 
modern  science. 

Suiter's  Physical  Geography. 

Maurys  Phys.  Geog.* 

Niles'  Advanced  Geography,  *  Merrill. 

Physical  Geography,  Voting.    Putnam. 

Physical  Geography,  Macturk.  Putnam.  156  pages.  Full  of 
important  facts. 

Physical  Geography,  Monteith.    Barnes. 

Student's  Atlas  of  Physical  Geography,  **  Bryce.  Putnam. 
(With  explanations.) 

Houston's  Physical  Geography. 

Class  Book  of  Physical  Geography,  Hughes. 

Volcanoes,  Judd.    Appleton. 

DYNAMICAL,  GEOLOGY — 

Geology,  Geike.    Macmillan.    Shows  the  history  of  relief. 
Geological  Story,  Briefly  Told,**  Dana. 
Handbook  of  Physical  Geology,  Brown.    Bohn. 
Geological  Excursions,**  Winchell.    Griggs. 
Town  Geology,  Kingsley.  *  Appleton. 


362  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

First  Book  in  Geology,  **  Shaler.  Heath.  Very  good  for  ele- 
mentary lessons  in  geology. 

Compend.  of  Geology,  Joseph  Le  Conte. 

Climate  and  Cosmology,  CroU.     Appleton. 

Sketches  of  Creation,  Winchell.    Harper. 

Geologische  Bilder,  Cotta.  Leipzig.  Influence  of  structure 
and  climate  upon  the  life  of  man. 

Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould,  Darwin. 

Climate  and  Time,  CrolL  Appleton.  (Discussions  of  Surface 
Formation,  Climate. 

Handbuch  der  Klimatologie,  Hann. 

Geography  of  Coast  Lines,  Lawson. 

Landschaf  ts  Kunde,  Oppel.    Breslau. 

THIRD  GRADE — 

Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  **  Andrews.  }  ^       »  au 
Each  and  All,**  «  \ Lee  &  Shepard. 

Little  Lucy's  Wonder  Globe,  p.  Yonge. 

Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands,  p.  Chaplin  and  Humpliery. 

Children  of  all  Nations,  p. 

Sea  and  Sky,  Blackiston.  p. 

Children's  Fairy  Geography,  Winslow.  p. 

Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,**  Kirby.  p. 

The  World  by  the  Fireside,  p.** 

MODEL  THIRD  READER —  Sherwood. 

pp. 

Animals  of  the  Temperate  Zones 152 

"    "   Torrid  "       260 

The  Camel 161 

The  Beaver 254 

Hills  and  Plains 281 

The  Elephant 295 

The  Mountains 284 

BUTLER'S  THIRD  READER — 

Sponges   138 

Adventure  with  a  Wolf 155 

SHELDON'S  THIRD  READER — 

A  Walk  in  the  Fields 138 

The  Camel  .  .134 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  3G3 

STUDENT'S  THIRD  READER—  Sherwood. 

The  Rack  Birds 135 

Esquimaux  Children 163 

Salmon 126 

Lost  in  the  Air  . .  74 


APPLETON'S  THIRD  READER— 


P1P5 


By  the  Brook 15 

Ella's  Ride 64 

The  White  Bear 72 

The  Mountain 84 

tost  in  a  Balloon . . .  .• 110  &  115 

Caught  by  the  Tide 147 

APPLETON'S  THIRD  READER — 

The  River 154 

The  North  Wind . 175 

MONROE'S  THIRD  READER— 

pp. 

Charlie's  Dream  (Forms  of  Water) 93 

Talk  about  the  Wind 102 

The  Impatient  Water 135 

A  Trip  Across  the  Prairies 139 

Imprisoned  Sunshine 149 

The  Wonderful  Pudding 201 


pp. 
The  Water  Drop 1 


GRADED  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING — No.  3.    Lee  &  Shepard. 
The  Water  Drop 

GRADED  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING — No.  9. 

pp. 
The  Snow  Flake 1 

FOURTH  GRADE — 

Ten  Boys  of  Long  Ago,  p.**  Andrews. 

Peeps  Abroad,  Mateux.     Cassell. 

Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,  p.**  Kingsley. 

The  Rollo  Books,  Abbott. 

Air,  Water,  Fire,  Sky,  p.  Museum. 


364  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Water  and  Land,  p.  Abbott. 

Primer  of  Physical  Geography,  Geike. 

Town  Geology,  p.  Kingsley. 

Physiographt,  Huxley. 

World  at  the  Fireside,  p.  Kirby. 

Prang's  Geographical  Pictures.** 

Geogr.  Bildertafeln,  Hirt.    Breslau. 

Geograph.  Charakter  Bilder  Volz. 

Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur,**  Miller. 

MONROE'S  ADVANCED  THIRD  READER — 

•   PP- 
The  Camel .• 58  &    61 

"  Elephant 71 

Talk  about  Winds 102 

Trip  Across  the  Prairies 139 

SHELDON'S  FOURTH  READER — 

pp. 

Chopsticks 113 

Catching  Buffalo  Calves  162 

A  Seal  Hunt 180 

Home  on  a  Canal 144 

The  Rainbow  Pilgrimage   27 

Do  Stones  Grow? 165 

Lost  in  the  Snow 177 

Fog  in  the  Harbor -.291 

MONROE'S  NEW  FOURTH  READER — 

pp. 

Little  Things  in  the  Great  Sea 63 

The  Eagle's  Nest   90 

The  Polar  Bear .'. 108 

A  Bear  Hunt, 139 

The  Atmosphere 55 

Lake  Tahoe 

APPL,ETON'S'  FOURTH  READER — 

pp. 

Complaint  of  the  Wild  Flowers 38 

An  Elephant  Hunt 76 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  365 

SWINTON'S  FOURTH  READER — 

pp. 
A  Cup  of  Tea 64 

"    "  "    Coffee  - 89 

Our  Bread  Stuffs 167 

Story  of  a  Rail  Road 292 

"      "      Steam  Boat 296 

Travel  of  Two  Frogs 127 

The  Air  we  Breathe 303 

FIELD  LESSONS — 

Works  of  John  Burroughs  :  ** — Fresh  Fields;  Locusts  and 

Wild  Honey;  Wake,  Robin. 
Chapters  on  Plant  Life,  t  Merrick.    Harper. 
Talks  Afield,  t  Bailey.    Hough  ton  &  Miflin.    (Botany.) 
Naturalists'  Rambles  about  Home,  t  Abbott. 
Waste  Land  Wanderings,  t  Abbott. 
Home  Studies  in  Nature,  t**  Treat.    Harper, 
Der  geograph.  Unterricht,  Steinhauser.    Langensalza. 

FIFTH  GRADE — NORTH  AMERICA — 

Stanford's  Compendium  t. 

Brown's  Countries  of  the  World  p. 

Picturesque  America.    2  vols.    Valuable  for  pictures. 

Journey  Across  North  America,  Smiles,  p. 

Anhuac  or  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans,  Tyler  t. 

The  Aztecs,  Mexico  Biart,  t. 

Travels  in  Mexico  Ober,  t. 

Cortes  Allen,  Lothrop,  p. 

Stories  of  the  Nations  p.  Hale. 

Mexico,  California,  Oregon  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  p.  Nord- 
hoff. 

A  Lady'd  Life  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Bird.    Astoria. 

Capt.  Bonneville,**  Irving.    (Rocky  Mountains.) 

In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  p.  Kingston. 

John  Brent,  p.  Winthrop.  A  novel — Scene  in  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Travels  and  Adventures  in  Alaska  t.  Whymper. 

Alaska  and  its  Resources,  t.  Dall. 

From  Newfoundland  to  Manitoba  p.  Pae. 

Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  p.**  Dana.  (Voyage  Around 
Cape  Horn  to  California.) 


.  ;••  HOW  TO  SITTMF  GBOGKAPHF. 


Af;,.T  hi 
tcs 


••         ,-  N  ...-,,>    .   :..-.:•::.  .......:•.-,    :.**    -.  ,    ..- 

::,    -.:•     -,:•.:•:  ;. 


>•:•    •:,--     •:.,.-    .:,..:,. 
•-.-.:...  •    T.-::   Ar.'-.  :.•     :\  ,,-. 


*  JC. 


MoyTEITH"^  PonCldLS  SCHESCB  Bl 


BOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 


WaMonPond 
Rip  Van  Winkle 
toKy 


SHELDON'S  FIFTH  READEE— 

Diacorerr  of  Plynioath  Harbor  .........................    47 

Skater  and  the  Wotres  .................................    « 

Valley  of  theYosemite  .................................  UK 

Science  oo  the  Yellowstone  ............................  :&* 

The 


BOT  TBATEUEBS  xv  Socra 
Amazon  Baflin  ........ 


Andeo,  South  ..........................................  435 

Brazfl  .................................................  364 

Chffi  ..................................................  351 

Orinoco  Basin  .........................................  - 

La  Plata  ..............................................  401 

Patagonia  .............................................  4fl5 

Pacific  Slope  ..........................................  - 


WHAT  DAKTOT  SAW— 

Modern  ExpioroB  .....................................  S 

Moraosfc  FOCETB  BCADCB— 

Sloth  of  Sooth  America  .........  .  ......................  87 

A  Xorel  Bridge  ........................................  192 

Frrra  READER  — 
'Condor  of  the  Andes.. 


:. 

tJ 
Harper's  Magazine,  p,  World,  p. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Bird's  Eye  view  of  Central  and  South  America,  t.  Bates. 
The  Antles  and  the  Amazon,  Overton,  t. 


Hurnboldt's  Travels  p.  *  * 

Peru  Squier  t. 

Peru,  t.  Murnhim. 

Sixteen  years  in  Chili  and  PeTU,Sutcliffe,  t. 

Forests  of  Guiana,  Brett,  p. 

Frank  Redcliffe,.Z>Mcm£,  p.  Venzuela. 

The  Young  Llanero,  Kingston,  p.  Venzuela. 

The  Wanderers,  or  Adventures  in  Trinidad  and  up  the  Orinoco, 

Kingston,  p. 

Dutch  Guiana,  Palgrave,  t. 
Boy  Travellers  in  S.  A.  *  *  Knox,  p. 
On  the  Banks  of  the  Amazon,  Lingston, 
Up  the  Amazon  and  Madeira  Rivers,  Mathews,  t. 
Between  the  Amazon  and  the  Andes,  Mulhall,  t. 
What  Darwin  Saw,  p.  *  * 
Journey  in  Brazil  *  *  Agassiz,  t. 
Geology  and  Physical  Geography  of  Brazil,  Hartt,  t. 
The  Pampas  and  the  Andes,  Bishop,  p. 
La  Plata,  Argentine  Confederation  and  Paraguay,  t.  Page. 

MONROE'S  FOURTH  READER  — 

Sloth  of  S.  A  .......................  .  ...............  ...187 

A  Novel  Bridge  ...............  .........................  192 

SHELDON'S  FIFTH  READER  — 

The  Condor  of  the  Andes  ...............................  277 

A  Peruvian  Temple  .....................................  353 

SIXTH  GRADE  —  EUROPE  — 

Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  t.  Europe  5  vols.  Reclus. 

Stanfords'  Compendium,  t. 

Countries  of  the  World,  Europe,  1  vol. 

Bird's  Eye  View  of  the  World. 

Our  Travelling  Protege,  Eddy. 

The  Alps  and  the  Rhine.     Visit  to  Ireland,  5  vols.  Scotland 

and  England:  Paris  to  Amsterdam. 
Motley's  Dutch  Republic.    Description  of  Holland. 
Stories  of  the  Nations,  *  *  p.  Putnam. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  369 

Greece,  Rome,  Byzantium.  The  Goths:  The  Normans:  The 
Italian  Republics:  Holland:  Norway:  The  Moors  in 
Spain:  The  Italian  Kingdom:  The  Nause  Towns:  Portu- 
gal: Ireland:  Switzerland:  Russia:  Rollo's  Tour  in 
Europe:  Abbott,  9  vols. 

On  the  Atlantic,  London,  Scotland,  Paris,  Rome.  On  the 
Rhine,  Geneva,  Switzerland. 

Florence  Stories,  p.  Abbot.  Orkney  Islands,  The  English 
Channel,  The  Isle  of  Wight. 

Scotland  and  the  Scotch,  t.  Sinclair. 

Scott's  Novels,  Descriptions  of  Scotland  and  England. 

England  t.  Escott. 

Holland  and  Its  People,  p.  De  Amieis. 

Hans  Brinker  p.  Dodge. 

France,  t.  Roberts. 

Sunny  Spain,  p.  Patch. 

Spain  and  the  Spaniards,  p.  De  Amieis. 

Spanish  Pictures,  Manning. 

Austria,  Hungary,  p.  Kay. 

Greece,  t.  Lewis. 

Siberia  in  Europe,  t.  Seebolm. 

Russia,  Morfill. 

Travels  in  Greece  and  Russia,  p.  Taylor. 

Northern  Travels  p.  Taylor.    Scandinavia,  Lapland,  Finland. 

The  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,  p.  Chaillu.  Sweden,  Norway, 
Lapland. 

Norsk,  Lapp  and  Finn  p.  Vincent. 

Iceland,  p.  Taylor. 

Byways  of  Europe,  p.  Taylor. 

P-P, 

Eruptions  of  Mt.  Vesurivus,  Monteiths  Pop.  Sc.Reader. . .  235 

Descent  into  a  Salt  Mine 226 

Sheldon's  Fourth  Reader 50 

A  Skate  Race  in  Holland 97-101 

Stockholm 192 

Hamburgh;   Cherries  of 232 

A  Russian  Hackman's    Adventure.       Monroe's    Fourth 

Reader 244 

Animals  of  the  Pyrenes,  Sheldon's  Fifth  Reader 234 

Rural  Life  in  Sweden 115 

"         "      "  England 281 


370  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Vintage 297 

Rome  and  Carthage 373 

Rescue  from  a  Crevasse 333 

The  Summit  of  Matterhorn 356 

ASIA — 

The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  4  vols. 

Stanford's  Compendium,  1  vol. 

Countries  of  the  World,  p. 

Bird's  Eye  View  of  the  World,  p. 

Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  t. 

Sinai  and  Palestine,  t.  *  *  Dean  Stanley. 

Those  Holy  Fields,  p.,  Manning.     Palestine.      For  Pictures. 

Lands  of  the  Saracens,  p.  Taylor. 

Bible  Months,  Grover.**    Climate,  Vegetation,  and  Animals 

of  Palestine. 

The  Old  W\>rld,  t.  Freese.    Anatolia. 
Travels  and  Researches  in  Armenia,  t.  Ainsworth. 
Researches  in  Assyria,  Ainsworth. 
Through  Persia  by  Caravan,  p.  Arnold. 
Travels  in  Bokara,  p.  HSurnes. 
Ride  to  Khiva,  *  p.  Burndby. 
Caravan  Journeys,  p.  Chateld.    Plateau  of  Iran. 
Turkistan,  *  t.  Schuyler. 
Central  and  Eastern  Arabia,  Palgrave. 
Arabia,  Taylor. 

Through  and  Through  the  Tropics,  p.  Vincent. 
Hindoos  as  They  Are,  t.  Rose 
The  Young  Rajah,  p.  Kingston. 
Two  Years  in  the  Jungle,  p.  Hornaday. 
Indian  Pictures,  p.  Nrivick. 

The  Queen's  Empire,  or  India  and  her  Pearl,  t.  Moon. 
Siam,  Taylor. 
Library  of  Travel. 

English  Governors  in  Siam,  p.  Leonowent. 
The  Abode  of  Snow,  p.  Wilson.    Himalayas. 
Beyond  the  Himalayas,  p.  Geddie. 
The  Roof  of  the  World,  p.  Gordon. 
Thibet,  Bogle. 
Central  Asia,  Vamberry. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  371 

The  Middle  Kingdom,  *  *  p.  Williams.    China. 

Regions  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Amoor,  t,  Atkinson. 

Malacca,  Indo-China,  and  China,  t.  Thompson. 

Malay  Archipelego,  t.  Wallace. 

China,  t.  Douglas. 

Land  of  the  White  Elephant,  p.**  Vincent.  Eastern  Asia. 

The  Long  White  Mountain,  James.    Manchuria. 

Voyage  to  the  Corea,  p.  Oppert. 

Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,  t.  Bird. 

Japan,  Taylor.    Library  of  Travel. 

Orient  Boys,  p.  Keene. 

Japan,  t.  Reed. 

Japan,  t.  Reiss.    Scientific.    Complete  description. 

Bear  Worshippers  of  Yezo,  Greey. 

Siberia,  Atkinson. 

Description  of  Siberia,  *  *  Krapotkine.    En.  Britanica. 

Exiles  of  Siberia,  *  *  Kennan.    Century,  May,  1888,  and  fol 

lowing. 

Land  Journey  Throngh  Siberia,  t.  Collins. 
Overland  Through  Asia,  p.  Knox. 
Tent  Life  in  Siberia,  p.  Kennan.  * 

Oriental  and  Western  Siberia,  Atkinson. 

pp. 

Rain  Storm  in  Japan,  Montieth's  Pop.  Sc.  Readers 112 

Chopsticks 113 

SHELDON'S  FIFTH  READER — 

New  Year's  Day  in  Yeddo 135 

A  Visit  from  Japanese  Ladies 153 

A  Night  Ride  in  Siberia 321 

Boys  and  Girls  in  Japan,  Butler's  Third  Reader 165 

AFRICA — 

The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  Reclus  t.  Africa,  3  vols. 

Stanford's  Compendium,  t.  Africa,  1  vol. 

Countries  of  the  World,  Brown. 

Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  t. 

Travels  and  Discoveries  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  t. 

Deriham. 

Sailing  on  the  Nile,  p.  Laporte. 
Egypt,  t.  Poole. 


372  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Upper  Egypt,  t.  Klunzinger. 

Modern  Egyptians,  t.  Laus. 

Among  the  Huts  in  Egypt,  p.  Whately. 

Land  of  the  Pharaohs,  t.  Manning.    Pictures. 

Egypt  and  Nubia,  St.  John. 

The  Nile  and  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia,  Baker.  People,  Cus- 
toms, Animals,  Ismalia,  p.  Baker.  Macmillan. 

Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North  and  Central  Africa,  t.  Barth- 
olomai. 

Through  Algeria,  t.  Crawford. 

Morocco,  t.  De  Amicis. 

Life  in  the  Desert,  Du  Couret. 

Life  of  Livingstone,  p.  Blaikie. 

African  Explorations,  p.  Livingstone. 

How  I  Found  Livingstone,  p.  Stanley. 

Expedition  to  the  Zambesi,  p.  Livingstone. 

Through  the  Dark  Continent,  t.  Stanley. 

The  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa,  t.  Burton. 

The  Albert  N'Yanza,  t.  Baker. 

Lake  N'Gami,  t.  Anderson. 

Stories  of  the  Gorilla  Country,  p.  Du  Chailln. 

Lost  in  the  Jungle,  p.  Du  Chailln. 

The  Country  of  Dwarfs,  p.  Du  Chailln* 

My  Apingi  Kingdom,  p.  Du  Chailln. 

Narrative  of  the  Niger  and  the  Binue  Expedition,  t.  Hutchinson. 

The  Congo,  t.  Stanley. 

Albert  N'Yanza,  t.  Baker. 

Travels  in  Western  Africa,  t.  Laing. 

The  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Africa,  t.  Gedde* 

•In  the  Wilds  of  Africa,  p.  Livingston. 

Central  and  South  Africa,  p.  Taylor. 

LIBRARY  OP  TRAVEL — 

Seven  Years  in  South  Africa,  t.  Holub. 
Heart  of  Africa,  Schweinfhrth. 
Equatorial  Africa,  Du  Chailln. 
First  Footsteps  in  Eastern  Africa,  t.  Burton. 

AFRICA — 

pp. 

A  Lion  Hunt,  Montieth's  Pop.  Sc.  Reader 337 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  373 

AUSTRALASIA — 

Stanford's  Compendium,  t. 

Brown's  Countries  of  the  World,  p. 

Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  t. 

Thirty  Thousand  Miles  Travel  in  Australia,  t.  Vincent. 

The  Australian  Colonies,  Hughs. 

Travels  in  the  East,  t.  Bickmore. 

Journey  Across  Australia,  p.  Mortimer. 

Bush  Life  in  Queensland,  Grant. 

Australia,  *  *  Fitzgerald. 

New  Guinea,  Samson. 

Capt.  Cook's  Voyages.  * 

SEVENTH  GRADE— OCEANS — 
The  Ocean,  t.  Reclus. 
Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,  t.  Maury. 
Geography  of  the  Oceans,  t.  Wilhelms. 
Ocean  World,  t.  Fiquier. 
Ocean  Wonders,  p.  Damon:  Appleton. 

POLAR  REGIONS — 

Arctic  Explorations,  p.  Kane. 

Open  Polar  Sea,  p.  Hayes. 

The  English  at  the  North  Pole,  Verne. 

Field  of  Ice,  p.  Verne. 

The  Giant  of  the  North,  p.  Ballantyne. 

The  World  of  Ice,  p.  Ballantyne. 

Ungava,  A  Tale  of  Esquimaux  Land. 

Arctic  Voyages,  Nordenskiold. 

Voyage  of  the  Vega,  *  *  Nordenskiold. 

An  Arctic  Province,  p.  Elliott. 

MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY — 

Astronomical  Geography,  p.  *  *  Jackson.  Heath. 

Astonomy  Primer,  p.  Lockyer. 

The  Heavens,  t.  Guillemin,  pp.  81, 109.  Putnam. 

Populare  Astronomie,  t.  Preussinger.  Stuttgart. 

Populare  Himmelskunde  and  Astronomische  Geographic,  t. 

Diesterweg.    Berlin. 

Die  Mathemattscher  Geographie,  t.  Koppe.  Essen. 
Allgemeine  Erdkunde,  t.  Hann,  Hochstetter,  Pokony.  Math. 

Geog.  Climate  Biology.  *  * 


374  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Grundzuge  d.  Mathemat,   Geographic  f.  Lehrer,  t.  Oberfeld: 

Wittenberg. 
Method,   Lehrb,  f.   d.   ersten    Uunter  in  d.  Math.   Geogr., 

Heckenhayn. 

Leitf,  d.  Mathemat  Physikal  Geographic,  Geidbeck.  Freiberg. 
Astronomical  Geographic,  Elementary,  Bartliolomai.  Lan- 

gensalza. 
Physiography,  *  *  Huxley. 

VEGETATION — 

Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  t.  De  Candolle.  Appleton. 
Vegetation  der  Erde,  t.  Grisebeck. 
The  Vegetable  World,  t.  Fianrier. 
Pflanzenleben  der  Erde,  t.  Labsch.    Hannoad. 

ANIMALS — 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,  t.  Wallace.   Scientific. 
Distribution  of  Animals,  t.  Heilpreni.    Appleton. 
Geographische  Verbreitung  der  Thiere,  Schmada.    Wien. 

GENEBAL  READING  FOR  PUPILS — 

Guyot's  Common  School  Geography;  the  best  ever  published. 

*  *  Ivison,  Blakeman  and  Taylor. 
Our  World  No.  2,  *  Hall.     Ginn. 
Scribner's  Geographical  Reader,  *  *  Smith. 
Exploration  of  the  World,  Verne. 

Comprehensive  Geography,  *  *  Shaw  &  Allen.    Lippincott. 
Blackie's  Geographical  Readers. 
The  World  As  It  Is,  Chrisholm. 
Voyage  Around  the  World,  Verne. 
The  Desert  World,  Manning. 
Coral  and  Coral  Islands,  Dana.  Dodd  &  Meade. 
Voyage  Around  the  World,  Livingstone 

PRODUCTS — 

Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States,  Patton.   Appleton. 
Manual  of  Commerce,  *  Brown. 
Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea,  Simmonds, 
Resources  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  Brown. 
Animal  Products,  Simmonds, 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY  375 

EIGHTH  GRADE — RACES  OP  MEN — 

Standard  Natural  History  p.**  Kingsley,  vol.  vi.,  Man. 

The  Peoples  of  the  World,  Brown*  6  vols. 

Manual  of  Ethnology,  t.  Brace.    London. 

Origin  of  Civilization  and  the  Primitive  Condition  of  Man,t. 

Lubbock.    Appleton. 

The  Dawn  of  History,  t.*  Keary.    Scribner. 
Races  of  Men,  t.  Pickering.    Bohn. 
The  Races  of  Man  and  their  Geographical  Distribution,  t. 

**Peschel 

The  Human  Species,  t.  Quaterfrages.    Appleton. 
Anthropology,  t.  Topinard. 
Anthropology,**  Tylor. 
Man  and  his  Handiwork,  Wood. 
Man's  Origin  and  Destiny,  Lesley,   Harper. 
Ideen  zur  Geschichte  der  Menscheit.**    Herder. 
History  of  Civilization,  t.  Buckle. 
Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  t.  Draper. 
Fossil  Men  and  their  Modern  Representatives,  t.  Dawson. 
Geographic  des  Welthandels,  t. 
Commerce,  Andree.    Stuttgart,  t. 
Die  Ruckwirkung  der   Lander— Gestaltung    auf  die   Men- 

schichte  Gesittung,**  Peschel     Wien. 
The  Aztecs,  Biart. 

Geographic  u.  Geschictle,  Jarz.     Wier. 
Authropo,  Geographic,  Ratzel.    Stuttgart. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Our  Governments,**  Macy. 
Civics  for  Young  Americans,  p.**  Giffin.    Lovel. 
Politics  for  Young  Americans,  p.  Nordhoff.    Harper. 
American  Politics,  p.  Johnston.    Holt. 
Democracy  in  America,  t.  2  vols.    De  Tocqueville 
The  Nation,  t.  Mulford. 
Progress  of  Nations,  t.  Seaman.     Scribner. 
Nearly  all  the  reading  for  5,  6,  and  7th  grades  may  be  used 
for  the  8th  grade. 


376  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 


SPRING  STUDIES  IN  NATURE. 


BY  MRS.  E.  D.  STRAIGHT — COOK  COUNTY  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


PLANTS— POINTS  TO  OBSEEVE. 

I.  General  conditions  of  plant  growth — heat,  light,  moisture, 
ventilation. 

II.  When  does  the  sap  begin  to  rise  in  trees  and  shrubs?  What 
evidence?    What  cause? 

III.  BUDS.— When  do  buds  begin  to  swell?  Are  all  the  buds 
on  the  same  plant  equally  developed  at  the  same  time?    Is  there 
any  law  of  development?    Examine  many  plants  and  different 
species  before  forming  conclusion.    Notice  position  and  arrange- 
ment of  buds  on  stem.    Is  the  arrangement  the  same  on  all  twigs 
of  one  plant — of  one  species?    Covering  of  buds — scales,  varnish, 
cottony  or  woolly  substance.   For  what  purpose?   Observe  folding 
and  arrangement  of  leaves  in  bud;  in  different  plants;  length  of 
time  required  for  the  development  of  the  bud  into  leaves,  branch 
or  flowers.    Watch  the  development  of  some  bud  from  day  to  day 
throughout  the  season.    Notice  the  relation  of  buds  to  leaves  of 
preceding  year.    In  small  herbaceous  plants,  notice  the  appear- 
ance of  buds  above  the  soil,  how  they  penetrate  the  soil,  their 
treatment  of  obstacles  as  roots  or  other  substances  in  their  way. 

IV.  STEMS. — Compare  with  regard  to  size,  color,  shape, 
texture,  surface,  etc.,  stems  of  one  year's  growth,  with  those  of 
two   years'    growth,    three   years'   growth,    etc.,    on    the    same 
plant.    Observe   in    woody    twigs    the    bark,    wood    and    pith, 
the  number  of  layers  in  the    bark,  the    surface,  color,  thick- 
ness   and    structure   of   each   layer.    Observe    of    the    wood — 
color,  surface,  hardness,  structure,  number  of  rings  seen  in  cross 
section.    From    the   number    of  rings  what   conclusion   drawn 
as  to  the  age  of  the  twigs?    Compare  stems  of  plants  growing  in 
the  same  locality  under  different  conditions — as  in  shade  or  sun- 
shine, etc.,  in  marshy  places  and  in  sandy  soil.    Can  you  form  any 
conclusions?    The  stems  of  what  plants  die  with  the  leaves? 
Compare  stems  which  grow  above  the  ground  with  subterranean 
stems.    Measure  the  growth  of  some  stem  by  marking  it  from 
day  to  day,  and  observe  conditions  under  which  it  grows  most 
rapidly. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  377 

V.  LEAVES. — Observe  whether  leaves  appear  before,  with,  or 
after  the  blossoms  on  the  same  plant  or  same  species.    Position 
on  the  stem.    Attitude  with  regard  to  stem — whether  upright  or 
drooping,  etc.;  also,  angle  at  which  they  spring  from  the  stem. 

Compare  rapidity  of  growth  and  size  of  twigs  with  the  num- 
ber of  leaves  they  bear.  Is  there  any  law?  Compare  the  two  sur- 
faces of  the  same  leaf  as  regards  color,  texture,  etc.  What  is  the 
cause  of  this  difference?  Compare  different  leaves  on  same  plant 
as  to  size,  shape,  color,  etc.,  especially  those  which  grow  on  sub- 
terranean stems  with  those  growing  on  aerial  stems. 

VI.  FLOWERS.— Do  they  appear  before,  with,  or  after  the 
leaves  on  the  same  plant?    Does  the  plant  blossom  the  first  or 
the  second  year?    Does  it  bear  perfect,  monoecious  or  dioecious 
flowers?    Do  the  pistils  and  stamens  mature  at  the  same  time  in 
the  same  blossom  or  on  the  same  plant?     If  not,  which  matures 
first?    Can  you  find  any  law?    Notice  the  form  of  the  flower 
cluster,  its  position  with  reference  to  the  stem,  arrangement  of 
flowers.    Is  there  any  law?    Is  the  flower  conspicuous  because  of 
color,  fragrance,  etc.?    Is  it  inconspicuous?    Notice  the  abund- 
ance of  pollen.    Means  of  fertilization.    By  what  insects  visited, 
and  for  what  purpose.    Notice  length  of  blossoming  time  of  single 
plant,  of  species — making  note  of  date  of  appearance  of  first  and 
of  last  blossom. 

VII.  FRUIT  AND  SEED.— What  length  of  time  is  required 
to  ripen  the  fruit  after  the  blossoms  appear?    What  is  the  kind 
of  fruit  (whether  dry  or  fleshy,  etc.)?    Attractiveness  to  insect  or 
other  animal  visitors.     If  dry,  notice  the  modes  in  which  the  pods 
split  to  release  the  seed.     Observe  modes  of  distribution  of  fruit 
and  seed  (wind,  insects  or  mechanical  means).    Observe  the  pro- 
portion existing  between  the  number  of  blossoms  and  the  number 
of  perfected  fruits  on  the  same  tree.     Compare  different  trees  of 
the  same  species.        Compare  trees  with  herbaceous  plants.  Find 
law.    What  seeds  sprout  as  soon  as  fruit  is  ripened  and  they 
reach  the  proper  surroundings?    Notice  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired for  germination.    What  are  the  conditions  of  germination? 
Observe  \vhether  the  cotyledons  appear  above  the  ground  or  not; 
notice  also  changes  in  color,  size,  shape,  etc.,  of  cotyledons. 

VIII.  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS.— Observe  how  plants 
behave;  how  they  climb  or  twine;  if  they  sleep  at  night;  if  they 
have  regular  times  for  unfolding    the  blossom  (as  the  "  four- 


378  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

o'clock").  Observe  changes  in  the  color  and  attitude  of 
leaves  due  to  meteorological  phenomena.  In  what  kind  of  soil 
does  the  plant  thrive?  Are  its  roots  sent  deep  into  the  ground? 
Compare  the  stability  of  the  plant  with  the  number  and  relative 
size  of  its  roots.  What  insects  frequent  the  plant?  What  insects 
visit  it?  What  birds  visit  it?  For  what? 

Keep  a  record  of  daily  observations  of  some  one  plant  or  plants 
throughout  the  season,  so  that  you  can  write  a  life  history  of  that 
plant.  Make  collections  of  stems,  buds,  fruit,  seeds,  etc.,  for 
winter  study.  Prepare  sections  of  common  trees — showing  bark 
and  rings — to  be  mounted  for  school-room  observation  and  compari- 
son. 

NOTE. — The  above  is  intended  to  be,  suggestive  rather  than 
exhaustive,  and  has  been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  those 
investigations  within  the  reach  of  every  district  school. 

MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS. 

The  Science  Supplement  of  February  26,  probably  first  called 
the  attention  of  many  teachers  to  the  wide-spread  "  Destruction 
of  our  native  birds."  The  appalling  statistics  therein  given  must 
awaken  in  every  thoughtful  spirit  an  ardent  desire  to  protect  the 
hapless-winged  creatures  whose  slaughter  is  a  disgrace  to  our 
civilization.  Every  teacher  must  desire  to  lead  the  children  under 
her  care  to  know  and  love  their  "winged  brothers,"  to  recognize 
their  voices,  to  watch  them  as  they  build  their  nests  and  rear 
their  young,  to  welcome  them  as  they  return  from  their  southern 
home,  and  to  bid  them  farewell  as  they  speed  away  on  their 
journey  southward  from  the  cold  winds  of  our  northern  winter. 

She  must  do  more.  She  must  lead  them  to  see  that  the 
wanton  destruction  of  bird  life  means  crops  wasted  by  insect 
enemies,  human  beings  suffering  because  of  this  loss,  the  whole 
country  poorer  because  of  thoughtlessness  and  vanity.  Only  by 
study  of  birds  and  bird-ways  can  this  be  done. 

DIRECTIONS  TO  STUDENTS. 

In  addition  to  the  points  given  in  the  circular  on  the 
"Geographical  Distribution  and  Migration  of  North  American 
Birds"  for  1886,  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  the  following  more  de- 
tailed observations  are  suggested: 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  379 

1.  FLIGHT.— Observe  whether  the  bird  flies  habitually  (a) 
near  the  ground,  either  in   open   spaces  or  among  shrubs  and 
underbrush;  (6)  among  branches  of  trees;  (c)  high  in  the  air  over 
open  prairie  or  swamp. 

Does  the  bird  fly  most  in  the  early  morning,  at  noon,  in  the 
evening,  or  during  the  night?  How  does  it  fly?  With  long, 
sweeping  motion  of  wings,  or  short,  sharp  movement,  or  soaring 
motion?  Many  birds  can  be  identified  by  their  mode  of  flight, 
when  so  far  away  as  to  not  be  otherwise  distinguishable. 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  weight  of  the  bird  to  the  extent  of 
wing  surface  and  the  rapidity  of  wing  stroke? 

2.  FOOD.— What  is  the  usual  food  of  the  bird  observed? 
Where  is  it  obtained?  Among  grasses  and  weeds,  among  branches 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  in  the  open  air  high  above  the  ground,  etc., 
etc.    How  is  the  food  obtained?    By  probing  with  the  bill,  by 
tearing  apart  of  seed-vessels,  etc.    When  is  the  food  obtained? 
Early  in  the  morning,  in  the  dusk  of  twilight?    Does  the  same 
bird  feed  upon  insects  and  seeds  and  fruits?    What  proportion 
of  his  food  is  insects?     "Table  manners"? 

3.  NEST. — Describe  the  nest,  the  material  of  which  it  is 
constructed,  the  mode  of  construction,  etc.,  its  size,  color,  shape. 

Is  the  nest  made  on  the  ground,  in  shrubs,  in  trees,  in  grassy 
hummocks?  How  is  the  nest  concealed? 

When  is  the  nest  made?  How  long  a  time  is  required  for 
making?  Do  both  the  male  and  female  birds  make  it?  For  how 
many  broods  is  the  nest  used?  Does  any  species  of  birds  show 
decided  preference  for  certain  trees  or  shrubs  as  nesting  places? 

4.  BREEDING.— When  does  the  bird  mate?    How  many 
egg  are  laid?    What  is  their  size,  their  color,  etc.?    When  are  the 
eggs  hatched?    When  do  the  fledglings   leave  the  nest?    How 
many  broods  are  raised   in    a  season?    Do  both  parent    birds 
feed  the  young?   Are  fledglings  taught  to  fly  by  the  parent  birds? 

5.  SONG. — Do  different  species  of  birds  have  any  preference 
for  special  time  of  day  for  singing,  or  are  they  heard  at  all  times? 
Is  the  song  imitative?  Does  the  bird  sing  when  perching,  or  when 
on  the  wing,  or  at  both  times?    Is  there  any  marked  variations  in 
the  songs  or  calls  of  the  same  bird  at  different  times,  or  for  differ- 
ent purposes?    Example — Notes  of  warning,  notes  expressive  of 
surprise,  joy,  etc. 

It  is  suggested  that  in  each  school  a  daily  record  be  kept  of 


380  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

observations  made  in  the  directions  indicated  in  these  papers 
upon  plants,  birds,  and  the  weather,  and  that  the  teacher  observe 
whether  there  is  any  mental  or  moral  development  in  her  pupils 
which  can  be  traced  to  the  stimulus  of  these  investigations. 


WEATHER     OBSERVATIONS. 

BY  G.  W.  FITZ — COOK  COUNTY  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


OBSERVE.  1.— Whether  clear  weather  is  relatively  warm 
or  cold. 

2. — Whether  fair  weather  is  relatively  warm  or  cold. 

3. — Whether  cloudy  weather  is  relatively  warm  or  cold. 

4. — Whether  rainy  weather  is  relatively  warm  or  cold. 

NOTE.  Test  temperature  by  a  thermometer  which  is  kept 
dry  and  yet  freely  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  shade. 

5. — Which  are  apt  to  be  stormy,  warm,  or  cold  spring  days? 

6. — Does  the  direction  of  the  wind  affect  this? 

7. — Observe  carefully  the  formation  (development)  of  clouds 
and  their  dissipation.  In  the  sudden  showers  whence  comes  the 
clouds,  and  what  causes  their  disappearance? 

8. — Whence  comes  rain?    Clouds?    Moisture  in  air,  etc.? 

NOTE.  Keep  in  mind  the  action  of  heat  and  gravity  and  all 
will  be  clear.  Heat  causes  repulsion  of  particles,  thus  overcoming 
cohesion  and  giving  rise  to  expansion.  Heat  causes  evaporation 
(What  is  it?)  and  expansion;  gravity  pushes  the  moisture  and  air 
up; — heat  is  lost  by  (a)  radiation,  (6)  expansion  under  lessened 
pressure  (1  degree  F.  to  182  ft.  ascent,  etc.)  (c) ? 

Loss  of  heat  results  in  condensation  (What  is  it?)  of  watery 
vapor  to  "water  dust."  (Tyndall:  See  "Forms  of  Water"  and 
"Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.")  Motion  of  the  particles  (falling, 
etc.)  causes  them  to  touch,  coalesce,  fall  more  rapidly,  and  become 
full-sized  rain-drops. 

9. — What  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  it  rains?  High- 
est at  which  it  snows? 

10. — What  are  the  conditions  which  cause  snow?  How  is  the 
snow-flake  builded?  By  what? 

11. — When  does  it  hail,  winter  or  summer?  Why?  See 
Davis  on  "  Whirlwinds,  Cyclones,  and  Tornadoes." 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  381 

12. — Make  barometer  and  observe  changes  in  heights; — com- 
pare with  thermometer,  dew-point,  etc. — weather  conditions,  etc. 

13. — Tie  thin  cloth  on  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer,  moisten  it 
and  compare  readings  with  those  of  "dry  bulb"  thermometer. 
Note  that  differences  are  variable — greatest  in  dry  weather,  least 
in  wet  weather.  Why? 

14. — Observe  when  dew  is  deposited  on  cold  objects.  Meas- 
ure the  temperature  of  an  object  which  will  just  cause  dew  to  ap- 
pear on  its  surface  (a  tin  cup  containing  water  and  copied  gradu- 
ally with  ice  until  dew  appears  on  the  bright  surf  are;  tempera- 
ture tested  with  a  thermometer  which  may  be  used  to  stir  the 
water.)  Find  temperature  of  "  Dew  Point"  at  different  times. 

15.— Study  carefully  the  weather  reports  in  daily  papers,  etc. 
Remember,  Heat  is  a  force.  Heat  and  gravity  give  rise  to  weather 
and  climate, — do  all  the  work.  Cold  is  a  sensation — not  a  force, 
and  does  nothing.  The  teacher  must  not  lead  pupils  to  theoret- 
ical conclusions  about  weather,  till  he  has  some  basis  for  them. 
Weather  is  a  complex  problem,  and  should  not  be  taught  as  a 
simple  one.  Children  should  be  led  to  observe  the  weather  from 
day  to  day,  and  to  think  of  the  varying  phenomena  as  produced 
by  ascertainabla  causes,  which  causes  are  forces  modified  in 
action  by  varying  conditions,  yet  acting  invariably  according  to 
certain  laws,  which  may  be  discovered  by  careful  observation. 
Little  of  the  weather  may  be  understood  except  by  the  study  of 
the  larger  weather  conditions  presented  by  the  Signal  Service  in 
their  tri-daily  reports  from  stations  scattered  over  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  also  in  Europe. 


THE     STUDY    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

BY  HERDER,  [1744-1803.] 

[Translated   by  Dr.  John  B.    Daish,  John  Hopkins  University.      Published  in 
Education,  January,  1888.    With  permission  of  translator.] 

"It  would  be  fruitless  by  a  long  speech  on  this  occasion  as  the 
better  business  of  the  day  to  show  the  young  people  in  their  strife 
of  industry  and  glory,  or  to  take  their  precious  time;  and  still  it 
would  be  more  fruitless  to  lose  this  time  in  a  Latin  speech,  which 
would  be  understood  by  only  half  of  this  assembly,  or  none  at  all, 
and  it  is  by  those  very  ones  I  wish  to  be  understood.  I  have, 


382  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

therefore,  decided  to  speak  of  the  suitableness,  usefulness,  and 
necessity  of  a  science  to  be  taught  in  schools;  of  this  subject  I 
hoard  two  years  ago  in  this  Imperial  Gymnasium  the  striking  ex- 
pression that  it  is  a  dry  study.  In  many  examinations  in  this  sub- 
ject, which  it  has  been  my  duty  to  hold,  I  have  found  more  of  the 
youth  strangers  to  it  than  I  would  wish.  The  science  is  none 
other  than  geography — a  study  which,  according  to  my  concep- 
tion, is  just  as  dry  as  if  I  should  call  the  Ilm,  or  the  great  ocean 
dry,  since  .1  know  few  sciences  so  rich  in  necessary  and  pleasant 
facts  of  knowledge,  yet  at  the  same  time  so  necessary  for  our 
time,  and  would  be  so  fitted  for  the  youth  that  I  wonder  how  any 
noble,  well-educated  youth  in  the  best  years  of  his  life  should  not 
love  the  science  before  all  others,  as  soon  as  it  appears  in  the  form 
in  which  it  must  appear — that  is  to  say  as  the  basis  and  auxiliary 
science  of  all  studies  which  we  most  prize  and  value.  Permit  me, 
therefore,  most  learned  assembly,  that  I  give  you  a  little  of  the 
material  and  of  the  method  which  I,  in  the  best  years  of  my  life, 
learned  with  the  greatest  pleasure,  and  have  taught  with  equally 
as  much  pleasure  to  others.  I  speak  from  experience;  the  matter 
will  speak  for  itself. 

"  Certainly  if  one  understands  by  geography  nothing  but  a 
list  of  the  names  of  countries,  rivers,  boundaries,  and  cities,  then 
of  course  it  is  dry;  but  also  at  the  same  time  a  list  of  words  so 
badly  treated  and  misunderstood,  as  if  one  knew  of  history  noth- 
ing but  a  list  of  unworthy  kings  and  dates.  Such  a  study  is  not 
educating,  but  is  in  the  highest  degree  frightening,  and  lacks  sap 
and  strength.  Also  a  great  part  of  political  geography,  as  well  as 
political  history,  has  no  charm  for  the  young;  indeed,  if  one  should 
speak  the  truth,  not  once  wholly  understood,  since  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  actions  of  States  which  have  been  carried  out  the 
young  have  so  little  a  right  conception  that  at  most  they  are 
wanting  to  grown  people.  But  is  this  true  geography?  true  his- 
tory? Is  a  miserable  nomenclature  a  speech?  Does  the  learning 
by  heart  of  a  vocabulary  constitute  a  good  author,  and  would  wo 
not  consider  one  as  insane  who,  in  order  to  learn  Latin  and  Greek, 
would  study  nothing  but  a  lexicon?  Exactly  is  this  the  case  with 
geography  and  history  if  one  uses  them  merely  as  an  index  of 
rivers,  countries,  cities,  kings,  battles,  and  treaties  of  peace.  All 
these  are  necessary  material,  but  the  building  must  be  built  out 
of  them,  else  they  are  but  stone  and  lime,  that  is,  ruins,  in  which 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  383 

no  one  rejoices  and  which  is  inhabited  by  no  living  soul.  The 
colors  are  necessary  to  the  painter;  he  uses  them  in  his  works  of 
art,  and  then  only  do  they  delight  the  eye  and  educate  the  soul. 
Let  us  see  what  the  word  geography  can  say  according  to  its  name. 
"It  is  a  description  of  the  earth ,  as  far  as  it  is  a  knowledge 
of  the  earth  is  physical  geography  the  most  necessary;  a  knowl- 
edge as  important  as  it  is  easily  and  pleasantly  entertaining.  Who 
would  not  wish  to  learn  of  the  wonderful  house  in  which  we  live? 
To  learn  about  the  earth,  a  globe,  as  a  planet;  to  make  known  the 
common  laws  according  to  which  it  revolves  around  the  sun  and 
on  its  axis,  and  by  that  means  days,  years,  climates,  and  zones 
come  into  being;  to  bring  all  this  into  the  foreground,  with  all  the 
comprehensiveness  and  dignity  which  it  demands, — if  that  does 
not  elevate  and  actuate  the  mind,  what  does?  It  gives  to  a  noble 
youth  a  share  of  that  sublime  joy  which  we  feel  if  we  read  the 
dream  of  Scipio  as  given  by  Cicero,  or  hear  elevating  music;  for 
this  knowledge  is  the  true  music  of  the  soul.  Out  of  the  great 
unity  of  natural  principles  an  unmeasured  row  of  geographical 
consequences  is  visible;  these  we  daily  feel  and  enjoy,  and  of  them 
every  one  who  is  capable  of  understanding  wishes  an  explanation. 
So  I  have  a  poor  opinion  of  a  young  man  who,  for  instance,  should 
read  without  pleasure  Fontenelle's  Speech  of  More  than  One 
World;  so  he  must  be  a  statue  with  human  appearance  who  re- 
mains undisturbed  by  the  great  laws  which  rule  on  our  earth  and 
by  which  he  becomes  what  he  is.  All  during  my  life  will  the 
times  of  my  youth  remain  a  pleasant  dream  since  my  soul  first 
received  this  knowledge  and  I  was  charmed  over  the  border  of 
my  native  country  out  into  the  wide  world  of  God  in  which  our 
earth  floats. 

"The  planet  which  we  inhabit  is  divided  into  earth  and  water; 
the  former  stands  out  like  a  mountain,  at  both  sides  of  which,  as 
on  inclined  planes,  streams  flow;  this  is  the  great  receptacle  of 
water  out  of  whose  mists,  purified  by  the  air  and  drawn  up  to  the 
peaks  of  mountains,  becomes  the  source  of  all  fruitfulness  and 
nourishment.  What  a  fulness  of  beautiful  and  useful  knowledge 
rests  in  this  conception!  If  the  youth  in  his  thoughts  ascends  the 
high  mountain  ridges  and  learns  to  recognize  their  peculiar  phe- 
nomena, if  he  afterwards  wanders  down  with  the  rivers  into  the 
valley  and  finally  comes  to  the  seashore  and  becomes  accquainted 
with  other  creatures,  with  minerals,  plants,  animals,  and  men;  if 


384  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

he  learns  to  know  that  that  which  was  mere  chaos  in  the  form  of 
the  earth  has  also  law  and  rule,  and  also  how,  according  to  these 
and  to  the  laws  of  climate,  forms,  colors,  ways  of  living,  customs, 
and  religion  change  and  are  changed,  and  that,  despite  all  differ- 
ences, mankind  is  everywhere  but  a  race  of  brothers,  created  by 
One,  sprung  from  a  common  parent,  striving  and  struggling  after 
one  goal  of  happiness,  but  in  various  ways, — oh,  how  elevated  will 
his  sight  be  and  how  his  soul  will  expand!  Meantime  he  learns 
the  various  products  of  the  earth,  the  many  different  ways  of 
thinking,  uses,  the  ways  his  brothers  live,  and  of  mankind,  who 
enjoy  the  light  of  one  sun  and  obey  the  same  laws  of  fortune. 
Truly,  then,  geography  must  be  the  most  charming  picture,  full  of 
art,  plans,  change;  indeed,  full  of  prudence,  humanity,  and  relig- 
ion. He  changes  himself,  without  leaving  his  fatherland,  to  an 
Ulysses,  travels  through  the  earth,  finds  out  about  people,  coun- 
tries, and  customs,  full  of  prudence  and  folly.  And  if  all  these 
are  made  vivid,  then  it  must  be  a  stupid  monster  who  by  that 
means  does  not  receive  into  his  head  ideas,  and  into  his  heart  a 
great  and  refined  perception.  Oh,  had  many  short-sighted,  proud, 
intolerant  barbarians  who  imagine  that  their  corner  is  the  only 
salvation,  and  that  the  sun  of  reason  shines  only  in  their  den,  only 
learned  geography  and  history  better  in  their  youth,  it  would 
have  been  impossible  for  them  to  have  made  the  narrow  band  of 
their  heads  a  measure  of  the  world,  and  made  the  customs  of  their 
corner  the  rule  and  guide  of  all  times,  climates,  and  peoples!  For 
my  part,  at  least,  I  must  confess  that  geography  and  history  (both 
considered  in  the  true  circumference  of  their  conception)  have 
first  of  all  contributed  to  the  shaking  off  of  a  line  of  lazy  judg- 
ments, to  the  comparing  of  men  and  customs,  and  to  the  seeking 
out  of  the  true,  beautiful,  and  necessary  in  which  form  it  shows 
itself  from  the  outside.  In  this  way  geography  and  history  serve 
the  most  useful  philosophy  of  the  earth,  namely:  the  philosophy 
of  customs,  sciences,  and  arts;  they  sharpen  thesensum  liumaniti- 
tis  in  all  forms  and  shapes;  they  teach  us  with  enlightened  eyes 
to  see  and  value  our  judgments  without  despising  on  that  account 
any  nation  of  the  earth.  '  For  in  Him  we  live,  and  move,  and 
have  our  being,'  said  Paul  before  the  altar  of  the  unknown  God  of 
the  Athenians,  'and  hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men  for 
to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  hath  determined  the 
times  before  appointed,  and  the  bounds  of  their  habitations/ 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  385 

"It  follows,  then,  from  what  I  have  said,  that  geography  made 
in  a  real  way  manifold,  rich,  and  vivid  is  inseparable  from  natural 
history  and  the  history  of  peoples,  and  furnishes  for  Loth  the 
base-line.  Natural  history  is  that  which  most  charms  the  youth 
and  fills  his  head  with  the  richest,  purest,  truest,  most  useful  pic- 
tures and  ideas  which  neither  the  Apthoniac  Chrin  nor  logic  and 
metaphysics  can  give,  and  the  truest,  most  pleasant,  and  useful 
geography  for  children  is  natural  history.  The  elephant,  the 
tigor,  the  crocodile,  and  whale  interest  a  boy  far  more  than  the 
eight  electors  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  their  ermine  mantles 
and  furs.  The  great  revolutions  of  the  earth  and  of  the  sea,  the 
volcanoes,  the  tide,  the  trade  winds,  and  similar  facts  are  far  bet- 
ter suited  to  his  years  and  powers  than  the  pedantry  at  Regens- 
burg  and  Wetzlar.  By  means  of  natural  history  every  country, 
every  sea,  every  island,  every  phase  of  climate,  and  every  race  of 
mankind,  every  division  of  the  world,  portray  themselves  in  him 
with  undying  characters;  so  much  the  more  as  these  characters 
are  constant  and  do  not  change  with  the  names  of  mortal  regents. 
The  Egyptian  horse,  the  Arabic  camel,  the  Indian  elephant,  the 
African  lion,  the  American  crocodile,  and  the  like  are  symbols 
and  coat-of-arms  of  individual  countries  more  worthy  to  be  re- 
membered than  the  changing  boundaries  which  follow  a  delusive 
peace,  or  perhaps  the  first  new  war  may  alter.  Since  all  the 
riches  of  nature  are  so  near  related,  since  the  chain  of  all  earthly 
beings  is  so  interpendent,  one  is  a  remainder  of  the  other.  The 
mountains  remind  one  of  the  metals  and  minerals  of  springs  and 
streams,  of  the  effect  of  the  atmosphere  as  well  as  of  animals  and 
men  who  inhabit  it  or  its  sides.  All  unites  itself  to  another  and 
gives  to  the  mind  of  the  youth  to  be  educated  an  indelible  pict- 
ure full  of  traits  rich  in  lessons,  which  traits  pass  over  into  all 
sciences  and  everywhere  are  of  manifold  and  valuable  use. 

"  Every  one  knows  that  geography  serves  history,  and  indeed, 
that  history,  political  and  technical,  of  the  Church  and  State;  in- 
deed, I  may  say  that  history  without  geography,  as  also  without 
chronology,  for  the  great  part  becomes  a  true  air-castle.  What 
does  it  help  a  young  person  if  he  knows  what  has  happened  and 
not  knowing  where  it  has  happened?  And  why  so  often  is  ancient 
history  rather  called  an  unsteady  dream  than  true  history?  Is  it 
not,  among  other  things,  because  it  is  too  often  separated  from 
ancient  geography  and  therefore  speaks  from  passing  of  mere 


386  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY 

ehndows  which  hover  in  the  air?  History  becomes,  so  to  say,  nn 
illuminated  map  for  the  powers  of  imagination,  and  even  of  judg- 
ment by  means  of  geography;  for  only  through  its  help  is  it  per- 
ceptible why  this  and  no  other  people  have  played  a  certain  and 
no  other  role  on  the  stage  of  the  world;  why  these  rulers  here  and 
those  there  could  rule;  why  this  empire  must  exist  a  long,  and 
that  one  for  a  short,  time;  why  the  monarchies  and  empires  fol- 
low each  other  in  this  way  and  in  no  other,  have  only  such  bor- 
ders, quarrel,  or  are  united;  why  science,  culture,  inventions,  and 
art  take  this  and  no  other  course;  and  how  from  the  heights  of 
Asia  through  Assyrians,  Persians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans, 
Arabians,  Europeans,  finally  the  ball  of  the  world-wide  events  and 
strifes  is  rolled  now  hither  and  now  thither, — I  would  have  to 
speak  for  hours  if  I  wished  to  show  all  this  in  needed  examples. 
In  short,  geography  is  the  basis  of  history,  and  history  is  nothing 
but  the  geography  of  times  and  peoples  set  in  motion.  Whoever 
studies  one  without  the  other  understands  neither,  and  whoever 
despises  both  should  live  like  the  mole,  not  on,  but  under,  the 
earth.  All  the  sciences  which  our  century  value,  esteems,  de- 
mands, and  affords  are  based  especially  on  philosophy  and  history; 
trade  and  politics,  economy  and  law,  medicine  and  all  practical 
knowledge  and  manipulation,  are  based  on  geography  and  history. 
They  are  the  stage  and  the  book  of  God's  household.  History  the 
book  and  geography  the  stage.  A  student  must  remain  back  in 
every  science  of  the  academy  if  he  does  not  bring  with  him  from 
schools  these  foundation  sciences,  geography,  history,  and  natural 
history,  almost  fhe  material  for  all.  Fortunate  that  one  who  saw 
them  in  his  school  time  in  a  beautiful  and  charming  form !  Fortu- 
nate that  one  whose  memory  is  not  filled  by  their  entertainment, 
but  whose  soul  is  educated  and  mind  unlocked !  Up,  noble  youths, 
and  show  what  I  only  in  common  pictures  and  incomplete  and 
from  a  distance  could  point  out  by  individual  trials  in  deeds  and 
practice.  Frighten  us  by  your  industry,  your  noble  watchfulness, 
your  noble  desire  for  glory  in  this  and  in  all  other  sciences  of  your 
life,  and  the  genius  of  your  life  will  crown  your  laudable,  early 
begun  work." 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  387. 


RELIEF  MAPS  AND  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION. 


BY  JOHN   BRION,  CONSTRUCTOR  OF  RELIEVO    MAPS  TO  H.  R.  H.,  THE    LATE   PRINCE 
CONSORT,  FROM  "AMATEUR  WORK." 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  most  natural  and  effect- 
ive mode  of  representing  objects  is  by  truthful  model- 
ing. Paintings  and  drawings,  however  ably  executed,  can 
not  give,  at  one  view,  complete  transcripts  of  the  things 
represented.  To  nothing  does  this  apply  with  more  force 
than  to  geographical  subjects. 

I  think  every  one  will  admit  that  it  is  impossible  to  im- 
agine elevations  and  all  varieties  of  peaks,  ridges,  water- 
partings,  and  table-lands  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  upon 
the  flat  surface  of  a  map.  The  most  elaborate  hill  shadings 
only  indicate  positions  and  areas;  natural  forms  and  alti- 
tudes remain  unrepresented  except  in  these  vague  points; 
light  shading  indicates  moderate  elevations  and  heavy 
shading  represents  higher  ones. 

The  late  A.  Keith  Johnston  was  so  strongly  impressed 
with  the  futility  of  hill  shading  that  in  many  of  his  finest 
works  he  abandoned  it,  substituting  black  lines  to  mark 
the  positions  and  directions  of  elevated  tracks,  and  his  plan 
has  been  frequently  adopted  by  others.  But  the  method, 
although  it  frees  a  map  from  much  confusion,  fails  to  give 
the  slightest  indication  of  form  or  hight.  So  entirely  has 
the  superiority  of  molding  over  all  other  forms  of  geo- 
graphical representation  been  admitted  that  many  clever 
attempts  to  give  the  effect  of  relievo  work  have  been  made, 
by  what  is  called  photo  relievo  or  panaramic  maps;  but  in 
all  of  these  there  are,  of  a  necessity,  grave  errors  in  per- 
spective, to  say  nothing  of  the  futility  of  endeavoring  to 
present  by  those  methods  an  "all  around"  view  of  a  hilly 
or  mountainous  region. 

It  will  perhaps  be  said:  If  the  superiority  of  relief 
maps  over  all  others  be  so  great,  why  have  they  not  been 
admitted  to  more  general  use?  The  answer  is  easy:  On 
account  of  their  cost.  A  good  quarto  map  of  Switzerland 
can  be  had  for  two  shillings,  while  Killer's  admirable  re- 


388  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

lief  of  the  same  costs  as  many  guineas.  I  can  vouch  for 
the  fact  that  where  it  has  been  found  practicable  to  issue 
a  relief  map  at  a  moderate  price,  the  sale  has  been  speedy 
and  extensive. 

To  obviate  the  serious  objection  of  price,  and  to  enable 
any  one  who  is  desirous  of  so  doing  to  acquire  and  embody 
exact  ideas  of  any  carefully  explored  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface,  is  the  object  of  this  paper.  It  will  be  found  easy 
and  inexpensive,  and  will  gratify  the  student  with  a  new 
sense  of  creative  power,  expand  the  mind,  fix  more  deeply 
the  present  knowledge,  and  correct  wrong  impressions  of 
structure. 

Relievo  work  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  maps  and 
models.  As  the  maps  are  embossed  from  the  latter,  accu- 
racy in  their  construction  is  all  important,  and  with  them 
we  will  begin. 

Assume  that  we  are  to  construct  a  relief  map  of  Eng- 
land; we  will  first  procure  two  simple,  well  engraved,  un- 
colored,  unmounted  maps  of  the  size  which  we  wish  to 
make.  Procure  a  well-seasoned  and  smoothly-planed 
board  1J  inch  wider  all  round  than  our  map.  Next  make 
a  moderately  thick  paste  of  corn  flour  ^  Bb,  and  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  alum,  mix  carefully  with  cold  water 
to  the  consistency  of  cream.  Boil  for  three  or  four  minutes, 
stirring  constantly. 

The  board  and  paste  being  ready,  soak  one  map  and 
one  sheet  of  cartridge  or  brown  paper  of  the  same  size  as 
the  map  in  clear,  cold  water,  till  they  are  saturated.  Take 
care  that  they  lie  perfectly  flat.  (Note. — Paper  of  a  soft, 
fine  texture,  not  very  stout,  is  best  for  this  work.) 
Remove  the  map  and  paper  from  the  bath,  and  carefully 
lay  them  on  a  piece  of  white  calico  in  order  that  it  may 
absorb  all  superfluous  moisture.  Let  them  remain  to 
expand  about  ten  minutes.  With  your  paste-brush  work 
the  paste  well  into  the  back  of  the  board  and  upon  one 
side  of  the  blank  sheet  of  paper,  mount  the  paper  on  the 
back  of  the  board.  (Be  careful  not  to  leave  much  paste 
upon  the  paper,  but  work  well  into  the  pores. )  Mount  the 
map  upon  the  front  of  the  board;  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
place  a  sheet  of  blank  paper  over  the  map,  and  with  a 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  389 

round  rule  work  evenly  over  the  surface.  The  mounting- 
done,  leave  the  work  to  dry,  but  avoid  placing  the  board 
in  the  sun  or  near  to  a  fire.  The  reason  for  using  the 
paper  at  the  back  of  the  mounting  board  is  to  compensate 
the  warping  that  would  otherwise  arise  from  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  map  in  drying.  The  motive  for  mounting  the 
map  in  a  thoroughly  expanded  state  is  all  important  in  the 
process,  for  if  it  were  mounted  dry,  the  wet  maps  would, 
by  expansion,  be  too  large  for  the  die  when  prepared  for 
embossing.  The  time  for  drying  the  map  after  mounting 
depends  on  the  weather  and  the  warmth  of  the  room  in 
which  it  is  placed.  Twenty-four  hours  are  generally  nec- 
essary, as  it  is  unadvisable  to  commence  modeling  till  the 
map  is  quite  dry.  This  being  done,  the  next  step  is  to 
determine  and  permanently  mark  the  positions  and  alti- 
tudes of  the  chief  hills,  mountains,  etc. 

The  question  of  the  relative  proportions  that  should 
be  observed  between  the  vertical  and  horizontal  scales  has 
been  much  discussed.  The  true,  natural  scales  for  relievo 
work  are  those  which  are  admitted  to  represent  vertical 
objects  in  their  apparent  and  remembered  proportions.  To 
obtain  these  the  following  rules  are  good,  general  guides: 
On  a  map  of  six  inches  to  one  mile,  or  greater,  an  equal 
vertical  scale  will  produce  a  natural  representation,  unless 
the  locality  is  very  low,  in  which  case  an  increase  in  the 
vertical  measurements  of  J-  to  |  times  will  be  necessary. 

On  map  4  ins.  to  1  mile  increase  vertical  scale  J  times. 

tt     tt    O  tt        tt  tt       tt    1      tt 

tt    tt   9  tt       tt         tt     tt   j'    tt 

tt    tt   -|  tt       tt         tt     tt   9    tt 

"       "     3  miles  to  one  inch  "         "     3 

tt  tt          ,'  tt  tt  tt  tt          A  tt 

tt      "12  "          "  "        u    8      u 


tt         tt    f)\  tt  tt 


The  following  directions  will  be  acceptable  to  those 
who  find  difficulty  in  forming  the  scales  for  working  pur- 
poses: Take  the  horizontal  scale  of  the  map  to  bo 
embossed;  for  example,  take  a  map  of  England  and  Wales, 
of  24  miles  to  an  inch.  This  by  the  above  table  should 
have  a  vertical  scale  16  times  greater  than  the  horizontal. 


390  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Measure  off  an  inch  upon  paper,  divide  into  24  parts,  each 
representing  a  mile,  or  5,280  feet.  Let  off  sixteen  of  these 
parts  on  a  line,  and  from  it  cut  l-20th  part.  Divide  the 
remainder  of  the  line  into  five  equal  portions  and  each  will 
represent  1000  feet  vertical,  sixteen  times  in  excess  of  the 
horizontal.  The  question  of  scales  is  very  important  in 
this  work,  but  there  is  also  a  great  necessity  for  compar- 
ing, whenever  practicable,  the  model  while  in  progress 
with  the  objects  sought  to  be  represented. 

Having  marked  the  vertical  scale  upon  a  piece  of 
cardboard,  boxwood,  or  ivory,  and  being  provided  with  riv- 
ets, or  fine  brads,  1|  inches  to  J  inch  in  length,  drive  these 
rivets  perpendicularly  into  the  board  on  the  places  marked 
to  denote  the  different  summits,  measuring  the  feet  by 
your  graduated  vertical  scale. 

There  are  various  substances  in  which  the  modeling 
can  be  executed:  China,  clay,  pipe-clay,  papier-mache, 
and  white  composition.  To  prepare  papier-mache  for 
modeling:  Take  white  blotting-paper,  and  soak  it  in  water 
till  it  is  reduced  to  pulp;  squeeze  dry  in  a  cloth,  mix  thor- 
oughly with  the  white  paste  described,  working  it  with  a 
knife  on  a  board  or  stone  slab,  till  of  the  consistency  of 
painters'  putty.  For  white  composition  modeling  clay: 
Take  best  whiting,  add  one  third,  by  measure,  of  common 
wheat  flour,  mix  with  cold  water,  and  work  to  a  stiff, 
doughy  consistence.  With  any  of  these  modeling  clays 
proceed  to  work  upon  bases  of  the  hills  shaded  upon  the 
mounted  map.  AknoAvledge  of  geology  is  not  indispensa- 
ble to  the  construction  of  relievo  maps,  and  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  general  contours  of  the  geological  forma- 
tions, will  aid  considerably  in  producing  truthful  modeling. 
In  addition  to  this  obtain,  whenever  practicable,  photo- 
graphs or  reliable  sketches  or  engravings  of  remarkable 
localities;  and  if  the  modeler  can  sketch,  he  will  soon  after 
he  commences  the  practice  of  the  art,  be  often  busy  in 
jotting  down  the  outlines  of  hills,  etc.,  that  meet  his  eye. 
The  tools  necessary  in  geographical  modeling  are  simple: 
An  ordinary  paper-knife,  and  modeling  points,  stumps  or 
flats,  aud  scrapers  made  of  bone  pen-holders,  filed  or  glass- 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  391 

papered  into  shape ;  these  will  enable  the  worker  to  pro- 
duce almost  any  kind  of  form  and  delicacy  of  finish. 

To  begin  the  modeling:  Work  a  little  size  or  gum- 
arabic  over  the  whole  of  the  mounted  map,  and  when  dry 
build  up  with  your  clay  the  principle  height  marked  by  the 
rivet ;  then  run  a  narrow  piece  of  modeling  clay  along  the 
remainder  of  the  range,  gradually  throwing  off  the  edges  of 
the  clay  where  the  fainter  shading  indicates  the  lower  eleva- 
tions. Make  the  ridges  of  your  hills  irregular,  and  none 
so  high  as  the  first  point.  Tool  out  the  valleys  in  the  hill- 
sides till  a  contour  of  this  appearance  is  produced.  A  good 
general  contour  is  what  should  be  first  sought  for,  details 
and  high  finish  will  then  be  easily  obtained.  Build  the 
clay  in  cones  upon  the  parts  marked  by  rivets,  keeping 
each  point  quite  distinct  from  the  others,  and  leaving  the 
valleys  to  be  filled  in  after  the  modeling  has  become  toler- 
ably dry.  It  is  often  of  great  advantage,  when  construct- 
ing a  map  on  a  small  scale,  to  refer  to  one  of  much  larger 
size,  as  features  are  there  frequently  represented  which 
throw  great  light  upon  the  smaller  work.  It  is  necessary 
in  all  cases  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  areas  marked  by  the 
hill  shading  of  the  map  you  are  modeling  upon,  and  to 
take  especial  care  not  to  obliterate  or  confuse  the  river 
courses,  or,  when  the  process  of  embossing  is  effected,  you 
will  be  presented  with  the  phenomena  of  rivers  running  up 
or  over  hills,  etc.  Frequent  reference  to  your  unmounted 
map  will  save  much  after-trouble  in  corrections.  On  no 
account  lose  sight  of  the  heights  marked  by  the  nails  as 
the  summits  of  the  hills  by  modeling  over  them.  The 
great  charm  of  a  model  or  of  a  relievo  map  is  its  close  re- 
semblance to  nature;  hence  distinctive  features,  as  well  as 
general  correctness,  ought  to  enter  as  much  into  the  work 
of  the  modeler  as  facial  contours  and  expression  do  in 
work  of  the  portrait  painter.  Suppose  the  principal  heights 
on  the  map  to  be  modeled,  it  will  be  well  to  leave  the 
work  for  a  day  or  two  to  get  well  set.  A  very  little  prac- 
tice will  enable  anyone  to  determine  when  the  modeling 
clay  may  be  touched  without  disturbing  the  work  already 
done.  The  secondary  modeling  consists  in  the  lesser  ele- 
vations. This  will  lead  to  the  third  modeling  in  which 


392  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

we  add  the  minor  spurs  of  the  principal  hills,  level  up  the 
land  and  beds  of  the  river  gradually  toward  the  salient 
heights,  which  have  hitherto  appeared  as  sharp  abrupt 
landmarks  upon  a  dead  level.  This  portion  of  the  work  is 
apparently  easy,  but  it  requires  taste  and  judgment  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  leaving  of  the  model  abrupt  and  un- 
natural ( as  will  be  the  case '  if  the  valleys  and  uplands  are 
not  filled  in  and  made  to  blend  with  the  bases  of  the  hills 
and  mountains),  and  the  obscuring  of  the  work  by  filling 
in  the  lowlands  too  heavily.  Avoid  rendering  the  work 
blunt  and  indefinite,  on  the  one  hand,  or  "  patchy  and 
poor"  by  neglecting  the  natural  lie  of  the  slopes,  and  de- 
pressions, on  the  other.  In  working  up  the  valleys,  it  will 
be  found  convenient  to  roll  out  a  piece  of  clay  half  the 
width  of  the  depression,  and  with  a  modeling  tool  to  gently 
spread  this  till  it  reaches  the  hill  sides,  and  is  made  to  blend 
with  the  first  portion  of  the  work ;  the  sides  and  bed  of  the 
valley  will  then  naturally  follow.  At  this  stage  take  care 
not  to  obliterate  or  mistake  the  river  beds,  and  by  reference 
to  your  unmounted  map,  and  occasional  use  of  the  com- 
passes, keep  the  water-courses  true.  The  cliffs  aud  coast- 
line generally  may  be  now  laid  on.  Do  this  by  rolling  out 
a  long  sinuous  piece  of  clay,  and  running  it  about  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  from  the  coast.  A  gentle  pressure  of  the 
fingers  upon  the  top  will  flatten  it  and  make  it  approach 
the  line  of  coast.  Work  on  this  by  vertical  strokes  of 
your  modeling  points,  and  you  will  obtain  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  cliffs.  Smooth  your  clay  gently  down  sea- 
ward, where  there  are  no  cliffs,  and  blend  it  in  with  the 
undulations  of  the  land  beyond.  While  working  up  to 
this  point,  the  model  should  be  frequently  brought  to  the 
level  of  the  eye,  and  the  contours  rigidly  examined  on  all 
sides.  By  this  view  errors  are  oftimes  detected  and  new 
ideas  frequently  suggested  by  the  horizontal  survey.  Dur- 
ing the  process  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  moisten  the 
clay  already  modeled  before  adding  new  clay.  This  should 
be  done  by  passing  cold  water  gently  over  the  dry  surface. 
The  modeling  clay  when  not  in  use  should  be  kept  in  a 
damp  cloth.  The  touches  in  modeling  are  so  infinitely 
varied  and  depend  so  much  on  the  taste  and  judgment  that 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  393 

directions  must  be  general.  Strive  to  be  natural,  accustom 
yourself  to  look  upon  nature  as  the  best  tutor,  and  imitate 
her  features  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  most  gifted  artist 
can  only  approach  her  very  humbly,  but  he  who  seeks  her 
frequent  guidance  can  never  entirely  fail.  Be  sure  in  the 
final  examination  of  your  work,  that  there  is  no  under- 
cutting or  miniature  covers,  produced  by  too  great  rough- 
ness of  work  or  porosity  of  the  clay.  The  model  completed, 
obtain  a  die  or  matrix  for  the  purpose  of  embossing.  Dies 
for  embossing  paper  work  are  generally  formed  of  metal, 
cast,  electrotyped  or  engraved.  If  metal  casting  is  to  be 
used,  the  map  to  be  embossed  must  be  drawn  to  fit  after 
the  cast  is  obtained;  the  contraction  which  the  molten 
metal  undergoes  in  cooling  would  throw  everything  out  of 
register.  Electrotyped  dies  are  entirely  free  from  this  ob- 
jection, and  are  to  be  preferred  to  all  others.  In  order  to 
prepare  the  model  for  casting,  dissolve  white  wax  or  bees- 
wax in  turpentine  or  other  spirit  in  such  proportions  as  to 
produce  a  thick  creamy  consistence.  Warm  the  bottle 
containing  this,  also  the  model,  very  slightly.  With  a 
soft  hog-hair  pencil  brush  over  every  portion  of  the  model. 
The  clay  will  absorb  much  of  the  wax.  Let  it  stand  a 
few  minutes  to  cool;  warm  wax  and  model  again, 
and  brush  all  over  a  second  time,  carrying  the  dis- 
solved wax  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  map, 
even  where  it  has  not  been  modeled  up,  namely,  the 
seas,  bays  etc.  Be  careful  not  to  miss  a  point.  Let 
the  model  cool  again,  then  examine  whether  the  wax  has 
stopped  any  of  the  fine  cuttings  in  the  work;  if  so,  pass  it 
to  and  fro  at  a  little  distance  from  the  fire  till  the  super- 
fluous wax  is  absorbed.  Let  all  remain  to  cool,  and  while 
this  is  going  on  prepare  for  casting  by  taking  four  pieces 
of  narrow  thin  wood  of  lengths  to  form  a  raised  frame 
around  the  model.  Tack  the  slips  to  the  edges  of  the 
modeling  board,  so  as  to  enclose  the  model  in  a  kind  of 
shallow  box.  Be  especially  careful  that  this  is  of  sufficient 
height  to  admit  of  plaster  of  Paris  being  cast  to  a  depth  of 
three  inches  for  a  model  of  eighteen  inches  square,  adding 
one  half  inch  in  depth  of  plaster  for  every  six  inches  ad- 
dtional  in  length  or  breadth  of  modeled  work.  The  slips  of 


394  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

wood  being  securely  tacked  on,  stop  the  corners  with  clay 
to  prevent  leakage,  brush  the  wood  and  model  carefully 
over  with  olive  oil.  It  is  now  ready  for  casting.  In  a  larrre 
basin  or  other  convenient  vessel,  put  luk.-warm  water, 
that  has  been  previously  boiled,  to  this  add  the  dry  plaster, 
scattering  it  gently  over  the  surface  with  one  hand,  and 
briskly  by  mixing  it  with  the  other,  till  the  mass  becomes 
of  the  consistence  of  thick  cream.  Shut  all  doors  and 
windows  to  prevent  draughts,  and  pour  the  liquid  plaster 
steadily  and  continuously  over  the  oiled  surface  of  the 
model,  shaking  it  gently  for  the  first  minute,  in  order  that 
the  plaster  may  enter  the  minutest  parts  of  the  work. 
Cover  to  a  depth  of  about  one  and  a  half  inches.  Allow 
ten  minutes  to  elapse,  when  a  second  quantity  of  plaster 
can  be  mixed,  and  the  mould  filled  in  to  the  required 
depth.  When  it  is  completely  set,  scrape  the  back  to  a 
level.  In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  remove  the  wooden 
slips  from  the  model,  and  let  it  remain  for  an  hour  longer, 
taking  care  meantime,  to  free  the  sides  from  any  plaster 
that  may  have  run  between  the  side  slips  and  the  model. 
Before  the  expiration  of  an  hour,  the  model  and  casting 
will  begin  to  separate  at  the  edges,  but  do  not  be  hasty  in 
attempting  to  lift  your  work.  When  about  to  do  so  it  is 
well  to  turn  the  cast  over  on  its  back,  so  as  to  bring  the 
model  upwards.  If  the  modeling,  waxing,  and  oiling 
have  been  properly  done,  the  mould  may  now  be  lifted  from 
the  cast  without  difficulty  or  fracture,  but  if  there  be 
signs  of  adhesion  between  the  two,  let  them  remain  longer. 
If  it  should  be  found  that  some  portions  of  the  model  have 
adhered  to  the  cast,  do  not  hasten  to  detach  them.  If  the 
waxing  has  been  thorough  they  will  soon  detach  them- 
selves so  far  that  they  may  be  easily  removed  with  the 
help  of  the  modeling  tools,  and  put  in  their  proper  places 
on  the  model.  Strong  size  or  thin  glue  can  be  used  as  a 
cement.  The  plaster  die  being  thus  separated,  let  it  re- 
main on  edge  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  around  it 
for  twenty-four  hours.  It  should  then  be  closely  ex- 
amined in  order  to  ascertain  whether  air  bubbles  appear 
in  any  part  ;  if  you  discover  any  stop  them  in  thus  :  Mix  a 
little  fine  plaster  in  a  cup  as  for  casting,  scratch  the  bubble- 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  395 

hole  deep  with  a  modeling  point,  wet  it  with  cold  water, 
applied  with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  and  with  the  same  paint 
in  the  defect  with  the  liquid  plaster.  The  die  being  of 
considerable  thickness  will  require  several  days  to  become 
thoroughly  dry  ;  do  not  be  mistaken  in  supposing  that  the 
cast  is  dry  because  the  surface  appears  so,  a  clear  ring 
from  the  cast  when  struck  by  the  knuckles  is  the  best  in- 
dication of  thorough  dryness.  If  you  wish  for  a  cast 
metal  matrix,  simply  take  your  plaster  die  to  a  good 
founder  instructing  him  to  keep  the  metal  cast  as  thin  as 
he  conveniently  can  for  the  purpose  of  saving  weight  and 
cost.  Should  you  decide  to  have  your  die  electrotyped  test 
the  accuracy  of  your  modeling  before  embodying  it  in 
metal.  Place  the  unmounted  map  with  its  face  against  a 
glass  window,  and  trace  with  lead  pencil  upon  the  back 
the  hights  and  certain  other  places  which  will  serve  as 
register  points  for  the  whole  map.  Run  a  blunt  pen- 
knife along  the  hill  shading,  working  the  summits  of  the 
ranges  and  all  the  hjghest  points,  but  do  not  cut  through 
the  map.  Then  work  the  map  in  cold  water,  taking  care 
not  to  obliterate  the  penciled  markings.  When  saturated, 
dry  off  superfluous  moisture  with  a  soft  cloth,  lay  the  map 
carefully  oh  the  plaster  die  so  as  to  fit  the  coast-line.  Fit 
the  map  to*  the  penciled  register  marks.  Secure  the  map 
in  its  place  by  pasting  long  slips  of  paper  on  the  sides  of 
the  map  and  the  sides  of  the  die.  Paste  the  back  of  your 
map  evenly  and  thoroughly  ;  then  rub  with  your  fingers, 
gently  along  coasts  low  lands  and  small  elevations,  and 
proceed  gradually  till  you  reach  the  greatest  heights,  or 
rather  the  greatest  depths  of  the  die.  Cautiously  break 
the  portions  which  have  been  partly  severed  and  lay  the 
divided  parts  in  their  natural  position  east,  and  west,  or 
north  and  south  as  the  case  may  be.  Press  them  firmly 
into  the  die  and  cover  the  fractures  with  narrow  pieces  of 
soft,  white  paper,  torn  not  cut,  at  the  edges.  Paste  these 
slightly  before  laying  them  on,  and  with  a  modeling  tool, 
judiciously  used  to  prevent  breakage,  sink  them  into  the 
depths  of  the  die  that  remain  exposed  by  fractures  made 
by  cuttings  in  the  map.  Go  over  the  whole  again  with 
paste  brush  and  fingers.  With  pieces  of  very  stiff  model- 


396  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

ing  clay,  properly  formed,  press  firmly  down  into  every 
part.  Fill  in  the  land  evenly  everywhere  with  the  clay, 
smoothing  the  work  off  exactly  to  the  coast,  and  bring  all 
to  a  perfect  level.  Paste  over  the  whole.  Take  a  mill 
board  or  panel  of  smooth  wood  ;  paste  this  also  and  lay  it 
upon  your  embossed  map,  rubbing  it  firmly  on  the  back 
in  order  to  attach  the  two.  Cut  away  the  slips 
that  have  secured  the  sides  of  your  map  to  the  die,  get  an 
assistant  to  raise  the  die  gently  on  one  edge  to  about  the 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  holding  the  mounting  board 
firmly  to  the  embossed  map  yourself.  Gently  lift  the 
work  from  the  mould,  taking  care  not  to  allow  the  tops  of 
the  hills  to  touch  anything.  If  errors  are  discovered  they 
can  now  be  rectified  by  cutting  away  portions  of  the  die, 
where  required,  or  by  filling  in  with  liquid  plaster  and 
your  pencil.  Proofs  of  corrections  may  be  taken  on  plain 
wet  paper  and  modeling  clay.  The  plaster  die  completed, 
another  step  must  be  taken  to  prepare  for  the  electrotypist. 
Warm  the  die  before  a  slow,  clear  fire,  then  with  a  spoon 
pour  melted  beeswax  over  every  portion  of  the  die.  The 
plaster,  being  well  warmed,  will  absorb  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  wax ;  the  residue  will  disappear  on  the  die  being 
held  before  the  fire.  Repeat  the  waxing  a  second  time, 
which,  completely  cooled,  brush  olive  oil  Over  every  part ;  edge 
it  around  with  wooden  strips,  arid  take  a  cast  in  fine  plaster 
according  to  previous  directions.  This  cast  need  be  but 
one  and  a  half  inches  thick.  Let  the  cast  remain  the 
same  time  as  previously  recommended,  then  take  it  from 
the  die.  This  relief  cast  is  prepared  for  the  electrotypist 
as  follows: — 1st,  dry  it  thoroughly;  2nd,  boil  it  in  bees- 
wax, over  a  slow  clear  fire;  3rd,  when  cool,  clear  every  bit  of 
wax  from  the  surface  by  holding  the  cast  before  a  moder- 
ate fire;  4th,  with  a  soft  brush  go  gently  and  carefully 
over  the  whole  of  the  sea  and  relievo  portions,  with  the 
best  black  lead  in  dry  powder.  The  model  is  now  ready 
for  electro  typing.  Electro  dyes  are  made  of  various  thick- 
nesses, from  that  of  a  six  pence  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 
The  time  required  varies  from  four  to  five  days  to  a  fort- 
night. After  the  electro  is  taken  from  the  bath  it  is 
"  backed  up  "  with  lead.  This  is  done  by  laying  the  elec- 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  397 

tro  face  dowmvards,  on  a  hot  iron  plate,  well-secured 
around  with  a  metal  edge,  same  as  wooden  edge  used  in  cast- 
ing plaster.  Soft  solder  is  then  worked  over  the  whole  of 
the  back,  and  upon  this,  by  repeated,  judicious  pourings  of 
molten  lead,  a  solid  even  block  is  formed,  which  protects 
the  die  and  fits  it  for  being  embossed  from.  The  method 
for  Parian  dies  is  as  follows: — Prepare  the  relief  plaster 
cast  by  waxing  as  before.  Make  wooden  edges  four  inches 
in  height.  Oil  model  and  inside  of  wood  carefully.  Be 
sure  all  corners  are  completely  stopped,  and  every  space 
between  wood  and  cast.  Take  fine  plaster  of  Paris;  to 
every  quart  of  this  add  a  dessert  spoonful  of  alum,  in  pow- 
der; mix  thoroughly,  then  with  luke-warm  water,  asbefore, 
prepare  your  plaster  for  casting.  Have  sufficient  to  cover 
mountains  at  first  cast.  When  set,  back  it  up  by  a  second 
casting  in  coarse  plaster,  total  thickness  about  four  inches. 

When  firmly  set,  scrape  back  off  to  level.  Proceed  as 
recommended  on  taking  first  die  from  original  model. 
When  ready,  remove  die  from  relievo,  and  when  perfectly 
dry,  the  die  will  be  hard  as  marble.  For  casting,  wax 
surface  as  for  the  plaster  one.  Very  little  wax  will  be 
required,  as  Parian  is  much  less  porous  than  plaster.  The 
Parian  cement  being  ready,  what  is  technically  known  as  a 
"force"  must  be  obtained. 

Gutta-percha  is  good  for  this  purpose.  Procure  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  ordinary  kind.  Three-eighths  of 
an  inch  is  convenient  thickness.  Cut  your  gutta  percha 
into  pieces  three  or  four  inches  square,  put  in  boiling 
water.  Let  them  remain,  stirring  occasionally,  till  com- 
pletely softened.  When  this  is  done,  place  the  mass  on  a 
board  or  table  well  wetted  with  cold  water,  and  when  it 
can  be  handled,  knead  the  whole  into  a  compact  mass. 
Frequently  wet  the  hands  in  cold  water  to  prevent 
adhesion.  When  about  half  cold,  and  getting  a  little  stiff, 
but  can  be  easily  worked,  roll  into  a  cake  about  three- 
fourths  size  of  the  surface  of  the  die.  Rub  a  piece  of  soap 
over  the  gutta  percha,  then  lay  it  carefully  soaped  face 
downwards,  upon  middle  of  the  die.  Quickly,  with  fin- 
gers, press  it  firmly  into  all  depressions,  taking  care  not  to 
move  the  gutta  percha  to  and  fro.  Roll  the  back  off  level, 


398  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

and  smoothly  spread  the  gutta  perch  a  beyond  the  extent 
of  the  land.  It  will  soon  cool.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  lay 
one  of  your  casts  back  downwards  upon  it  while  setting, 
to  prevent  warping.  When  perfectly  cold  it  may  be  lifted 
with  ease.  From  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  according  to 
thickness,  is  usually  sufficient.  If  all  has  not  gone  well, 
cut  up  your  gutta  percha,  boil  it  again  and  persevere 
till  you  succeed.  Success  in  this  depends  on  using 
the  gutta  at  the  right  time,  i.  e.,  when  about  half  cold, 
but  not  so  much  as  to  be  refractory  in  working. 
The  next  step  is  that  of  embossing.  Trace  and  prop- 
erly soap  the  maps  to  be  embossed  as  previously  directed: 
lay  upon  a  table  a  piece  of  thick  felt  or  carpet,  doubled  so 
as  to  form  an*  even  bed.  Upon  this,  place  your  die,  face 
upwards.  With  powdered  starch,  in  a  muslin  bag,  lightly 
dust  both  its  plane  surface  and  its  depressions.  Lay  a  wet  map, 
half  cut  through  at  the  highest  elevations  with  your  blunt 
pen  knife,  and  cleared  of  all  surface  moisture,  accurately 
upon  the  register  points  of  the  die,  as  already  described, 
secure  it  by  the  paper  slips  at  the  edges.  Dob  the  small- 
est depressions  firmly  down  with  a  piece  of  wet  cloth 
formed  in  to  a  convienent  ball.  Lay  the  fractures  along  the 
lines  of  the  deepest  depressions  of  the  map  carefully  in 
their  places,  and  repair  them  with  white  paper  in  the  name 
manner  as  you  did  in  taking  the  first  proof.  Smooth  all 
down  neatly.  Pass  the  paste  brush  lightly  but  thorough- 
ly over  the  entire  map,  and  upon  it  smoothly  mount  a 
clamp  sheet  of  demy  paper,  previously  pasted.  Press  this 
into  the  depressions;  then  take  your  gutta-percha  "force," 
powder  it  well  with  the  starch,  to  prevent  it  sticking 
to  the  map,  and  fit  it  to  its  proper  position  on  the 
die.  A  couple  of  points  will  enable  you  to  do  this 
securely.  Press  the  "force"  firmly  down  upon  the  map. 
Rub  a  piece  of  soap  over  the  back  of  the  "force"  and  with 
the  face  of  an  auctioneer's  hammer,  or  a  porcelain  knob- 
bed door-handle,  rub  with  considerable  power  over  the 
whole  of  the  back  of  the  "force,"  crossing  and  recrossing 
the  rubber  in  every  direction,  so  that  every  portion  of  the 
map  beneath  may  receive  the  impression  of  the  die  and 
force.  Be  careful  not  to  strike  the  die ;  it  will  bear  very 


HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY.  399 

considerable  exertion  of  strength  when  rubbed,  but  would 
go  to  pieces  under  a  moderate  blow,  or  beneath  a  press. 
The  best  method  of  obtaining  power  in  rubbing  is  to  firm- 
ly grasp  the  handle  of  your  hammer  or  door-knob,  and 
bring  your  hand  in  that  position  near  your  chest,  throw- 
ing back  your  elbow,  and  rubbing  "straight  from  the 
shoulders."1  Take  especial  care  that  your  die  always  lies 
on  a  thick  and  even  pad  of  felt  or  carpet.  Remove  the 
force  cautiously.  Examine  the  impression  made  upon  the 
back  of  the  embossed  map.  If  not  satisfactory,  give  what 
is  termed  a  "second  blocking."  For  securing  solidity  of 
work  it  is  well  to  fill  ir  the  embossing  solid  with  papier- 
mache.  Embossed  maps  are  mounted  in  three  ways:  1st. 
upon  thin  panels  of  wood;  2nd.  upon  mill-board;  3rd. 
upon  canvass  "strained  upon  a  stretcher."  No.  three  is 
cheaper  and  easier  to  work,  and  ensures  the  perfect  level 
so  necessary  to  the  correctness  of  relievo  work.  To  mount 
the  embossed  map,  paste  the  face  of  the  canvas  thorough- 
ly, also  the  back  of  the  embossed  work.  With  care  lay 
two  corners  of  the  mounted  stretchers  upon  two  corners 
of  the  map,  let  it  fall  gently  into  its  place  upon  the  relievo, 
rub  the  back  of  the  canvas  well  and  evenly  down  upon  the 
map  so  that  every  part  may  adhere,  remove  the  side  pieces 
of  binding  paper,  raise  the  die,  and  gently  lift  the  em- 
bossed map.  The  drying  of  an  embossed  map  must  not 
be  hurried  by  placing  if  before  a  fire  or  in  the  hot  sun. 
.Tli at  will  cause  warping  or  shrinking.  A  moderately 
warm  room  is  needed.  The  period  required  for  drying 
varies  according  to  the  size  of  the  masses  of  relievo  work. 
For  small  maps,  twenty-four  hours  may  do,  for  large  and 
bold  subjects  three  or  four  days  will  be  required.  During 
the  first  twelve  hours  it  is  well  to  let  the  embossed  work 
lie  in  a  horizontal  position,  face  upwards  supported  by  a 
panel  of  wood  to  prevent  the  work  from  sinking.  When 
set,  the  relievo  may  be  stood  on  edge  so  as  to  allow  its 
drying  equally  at  the  same  time  back  and  front.  Should 
any  fractures  be  perceptible  after  the  relievo  is  thorougly 
dry,  dust  the  map  carefully  and  with  a  soft  hog-hair,  or 
flat  camel-hair  brush,  wash  it  lightly  over  with  patent  or 
other  clear  size,  In  sizing  take  care  not  to  let  the  liquid 


400  HOW  TO  STUDY  GEOGRAPHY. 

settle  down  into  pools  amidst  the  hills,  etc.,  and  go  very 
carefully  in  cross  action  over  every  portion  of  the  sea  as 
well  as  the  land.  Stand  aside  to  dry.  Should  any  fract- 
ures remain  after  this,  take  a  small  quantity  of  finely 
powdered  white  starch,  mix  it  to  a  creamy  paste  with 
warm  size  (do  not  use  gum  arabic).  Keep  the  starch 
cement  liquid  by  placing  over  warm  water,  while  work-; 
ing.  Go  over  the  fractures  with  a  camel-hair  pencil  dipped 
in  the  liquid  starch.  When  this  is  completed  and  all 
quite  dry,  Droceed  to  color  your  relievo.  The  coloring 
done  and  dried,  give  the  map  a  second  coat  of  size  of 
thinner  consistency  than  the  first,  in  a  few  hours  a  third 
coat,  being  particular  not  to  miss  a  single  point,  other- 
wise the  varnish  which  has  to  follow  will  penetrate,  and 
create  an  ugly  brown  mark.  The  last  operation  is  that  of 
varnishing.  This  should  be  done  in  a  warm  room  with 
doors  and  windows  closed,  or  currents  of  air  may  cause 
the  work  to  become  ridgey.  Warm  the  map  and  varnish 
slightly  before  a  fire :  take  care  that  the  former  is  perfect- 
ly dry  and  well  dusted.  Three  coats  of  varnish  are  better 
than  two  thick  ones,  allowing  twenty-four  hours  for  dry- 
ing each  coat. 


THE 


RETURN  TO:      CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
198  Main  Stacks 


LOAN  PERIOD     1 
Home  Use 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS. 

Renewals  and  Recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  the  due  date. 
Books  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-3405. 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW. 

Jin  n7?not 

FORM  NO.  DD  6 
50M 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
Berkeley,  California  94720-6000 

; 

11  .-  •  v,  <  - 

YC  48993 


H£?4i32r  $£.;> 

v£&  ^ 

{ffr'fr*!  •g^M-%]     v^-y/.v^^-r. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


•lp: 


I 


